BCA IST SEM Business Communication

 

Business Communication
Semester I – Notes
Unit 1: Theory of Communication
Chapter I
Concept of Communication
The English word ‘communication’ has been derived from the Latin word, ‘Communicare’ which means
to impart or participate or to transmit. The word ‘Communicare’ is derived from the root ‘Communis’
which means to make common or to share.
Communication is 1) the activity or process of sharing or exchanging ideas, feelings, information,
experience between two or more persons; 2) an act or instance of transmitting; 3) the information
actually communicated by some means.
Definitions of communication:
1) The Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as “the action of conveying or exchanging
information and ideas.”
2) Peter Little defines communication as “the process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and or organizations so that an understanding response results.”
3) Allen Lui (Louis) defines communication as “ Communication is the sum of all the things one person
does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It
involves a systematic process of telling, listening, understanding and responding.”
4) Keith Davis defines communication as “Communication is the transfer of information and
understanding from one person to another.”
Business Communication:
William G. Scott defines business communication as “Administrative communication is a process which
involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of
eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals.”
The last definition covers 4 aspects of administrative communication, as follows:
1) The sender’s ability to transmit his own ideas accurately.
2) The receiver’s mental ability to get the same idea as were transmitted i.e. accurate replication.
3) The feedback or the receiver’s response.
4) Eliciting action which will help to achieve the goals.
The process of communication involves a series of stages:
1) An idea arises in the mind of the sender, which he wants to share.
2) The sender encodes the idea in the form of a ‘message’.
3) The sender chooses some medium / channel to put across the message.
4) The receiver receives the message.
5) The receiver decodes – absorbs, understands, interprets the message.
6) The receiver sends feedback or his response.
The components or elements of the communication process are as follows:
1) The sender or the communicator
2) The message
3) Encoding
4) The medium / channel
5) The receiver
6) Decoding
7) Feedback
Importance of feedback in the process of communicationEffective feedback, both positive and negative, is very helpful. Feedback is valuable information that will
be used to make important decisions.
After getting the meaning of the message‘, the receiver provides feedback‘ which he =encodes‘ in the
form of a response/reaction/reply to the message. Feedback plays an important part in the
communication process, because it is desired and expected by both the sender‘ and the receiver‘. The
sender‘ wants to know whether and how his =message‘ has been received, and the =receiver‘, either
consciously or unconsciously, usually provides a sign indicating that he has received the message.
It should be noted that feedback may be positive or negative. Positive feedback indicates to the sender
the fact that his message has been received, understood, and accepted; and that he can proceed to the
next point. Negative feedback tells the sender that his message has not been properly understood. It,
therefore, functions as a corrective, as it makes the =sender‘ realize the defects or flaws in his manner
of encoding. He will, therefore, have to encode the same message in a different way, so as to enable the
=receiver‘ to understand it.
Feedback may be immediate or delayed. In the case of interpersonal communication it is quick, as the
sender is able to observe the response/reaction (e.g. a smile, nod, frown etc.) when he is conveying the
message. He can also guess whether the =receiver‘ agrees or disagrees with him.
However, in the case of a letter, feedback may be delayed as the =receiver‘ will take time to reply.
Sometimes, feedback is obtained indirectly, by observing the subsequent change of behaviour on the
part of the =receiver‘.
Feedback is very important in business. It is important for the businessperson to know whether his/her
clients and customers are satisfied with the products and services, or whether s/he needs to make
changes. Feedback from employees is also necessary to improve the performance of an organization.
The diagrammatical representation of the communication process can be shown as follows:
How to achieve effective communication:
1) Communicate for a purpose
2) Compose message with care
3) Study the receiver
4) Select appropriate medium
5) Provide feedback
6) Act promptly on receiving feedback.
Benefits of effective communication:
1. Healthy relations
2. Better performance
3. High morale
4. Good image unity
5. Reaching final goals
6. Smooth functioning
7. Greater efficiency
8. Higher productivity
9. Effective decision-making
10. Co-operation & Co-ordination
` ` ` `` `
Students are suppose to prepare notes on their own.
Emergence of communication as a key concept in the corporate and global world.
Impact of technology enabled communication : Types – Internet, Blogs, E-mail, Moodle, Social
media (Facebook, twitter and Whatsapp advantages and disadvantages)
Sender

Channel / Medium

Receiver
Chapter II
Channels and Objectives of Communication
Formal Communication
Downward communication:
Needed For:
1) To get the work done.
2) To prepare the workforce for challenges
3) To tackle misinformation & suspicion arising out of it
4) To create a feeling of pride & confidence in the workforce I order to motivate it and to
boost its morale.
5) To transmit work ethics & the organization‘s culture.

Advantage	Disadvantage
Discipline	Lack of vision & arbitrary decision making can prove detrimental and harmful to the organization
Implementation of orders happen efficiently	Balance in sharing information is important so is indicious use of discretion
Tasks & positions can be well defined	Delay implementation of decisions
Clarity in the minds of employees about their responsibility, avoids confusion	Oral communication leads to information loss, distraction & lack of accountability
It helps in uniting different level of authority & brings in team spirit	Absence of feedback mechanistic can lead to frustration, lack of trust in authority & feel exploited

Upward communication:
Needed for:
1) To forward employee-feedback
2) To report on official matters
3) To give voice on the difficulties, grievances, complaints, dissatisfaction, work related
demands of employees
4) To invite suggestion, creativity & participation in problem solving
5) To create a sense of belonging through participation

Advantage	Disadvantage
Employees participation	Failure on the part of subordinates to take initiative & participate in the decision making
Trust , emotional bonding, understanding & cooperation between management & employees	Long line of authority, inability of the seniors to listen or to act, create barriers
Employees enthusiastic	Delays due to slow transmission, distortion of communication further hamper the process
Authority earns subordinates cooperation response to management‘s call	Employees failure to handle upwards communication

Requirements:
1) Chain should be start
2) Executives should be trained for excellent listening skills
3) The organizations atmosphere should be conducive
Vertical Communication:
While Decisions are finally taken by the top management, there is room for employee
feedback, communication, wherein the management interacts with employees, invites
their participation in decision making, creates mechanisms to address their concerns
without compromising on its measures of control is called vertical communication.
Horizontal / Lateral Communication:
Need for:
1) To exchange official information
2) To create understanding and team spirit among members
3) To solve difficulties
4) To seek and extend co-operation
5) To save time when quick decisions have to be made

Advantage	Disadvantage
Helps in clarifying doubts, taking quick decisions & eliminating mistrust	Ungoverned horizontal communication to leads to discipline
It brings about better coordination, builds team spirit and ensure faster implementation of decisions	Employees tend to waste precious time arguing and debating over issues and decisions

It also check the grapevine

Requirements:
1) Employee must learn to extend cooperation & work towards achieving goals
2) The authority should delegate responsibilities to subordinates in order to quicken the
pace of work.
3) Horizontal Communication needs to be monitored as its uncontrolled transmission can
invite problems for the organization.
Diagonal / Crosswise
Needs for:
1) Speeds up the flow of information
2) Creates healthy work relationships
3) Brings in proper co-ordination among different sections
4) Makes problem solving easy
5) Controls distortion & dilution of message because of direct, inter leave communication
Requirements:
1) Organizations atmosphere should be trust & transparency
2) Proper training or orientation should be given to employees to handle diagonal
communication

Advantage	Disadvantage
Speeds up the flow of information	It is likely to bypass the vertical chain of commands. This may create doubts in the minds of bypassed superiors
Creates healthy work relationships	It may be seen as interference
Brings in proper co-ordination among different sections	It may create doubts the superior‘s accountability & cooperation
Makes problem solving easy	Decisions thus taken may be resisted by the bypassed authority and could spoil the organization atmosphere
Controls distortion & dilution of message because of direct, inter leave communication

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Grapevine is the plant or creeper on which grapes grow. The grapevine may glow or
move in any direction with the support of its tendrils. In the some way, informal
communication can move in any direction with the support of informal groups.
How it is generated?
1) People need to share & agree on important opinions & attitudes to feel that they belong
to a group
2) People need to share their hopes & ambitions with superiors
3) People need to express emotions such as joy, anger, hostility etc.
4) Because of the rigidity of the formal, structure, the people feel the need to bypass
―official channels‖ for the sake of expediency in getting & giving information about
performance on the job.
The various types of grapevine are:
1) Chain
2) Single strand chain
3) Gossip Chain
4) Probability Chain
5) Cluster Chain
6) Wheel
7) Star

Advantage	Disadvantage
Grapevine communication travels fast, It has vast reach	Negative information half truths, personalized accounts of events, gross distortions are passed on by the render
The content because of its immense personal appeal are readily believable	It often leads to lack of motivation & moral of employees

Management must be aware of the power of grapevine, it can often fail the formal
system, it is difficult to trace its origin & is difficult to stop or control completely.
Guidelines for Management
1) Circulate information that is accurate & strengthen upward channels of communication
2) Delegate responsibility & entrust employees with specific responsibility to strengthen
trust between itself & employees
3) Invite suggestion farm grievance & redress cells, publishing house journals, make
effective use of bulletins, notice boards & employee welfare schemes
4) Either cut the grapevine with official communication or use grapevine itself to
circulate official information
Objective:
1) Information :
About organization, rules, regulations, culture, products, market, research, decisions,
vision, mission, goal etc.
2) Advice & Counseling:
Providing guidance is yet another objective of downward communication, seniors,
experts can help
employees with troubleshooting & crisis management, assist them in solving problems
that can forge bonds between employees & the managements.
3) Order & Instructions:
Orders & instruction means is giving directions to the employees. Any authoritative
communication issued by a superior in order to monitor / govern the behavior of a junior
is know as a ‗order‘ when an orders is split furthers to meet specific issue, it becomes
instruction.
4) Suggestion:
To suggest means to propose or put forward an idea for consideration both upward &
downward
communication. Employee participation & involvement encourage creative thinking &
exposure to employee‘s talent. Employees feel valued & develop a sense of belonging.
5) Persuasion:
Persuasion is an effort to influence the mind, belief system or attitude of a person to
bring about the desired change in his / her behavior.
4 Steps to take while persuading :
1) Identification
2) Preparing the Receiver
3) Deliver the message
4) Prompting action
Important Factor:
1) Persuader‘s personal character & reputation
2) Persuader must make suitable & effective emotional appeal
3) Persuader must logically present his ideas, views etc. There must be reasonable
presentation of the persuaded messages.
6) Education & Training:
At the management level, at the employee‘s level and at the level of outside public.
7) Motivation:
Motivation means that inner state that energizes activates or moves and which directs
or channels
behavior towards certain goal.
Setting up the right kind of justice & rewards system & inviting the employee‘s
participation in decision making can create the right kind of emotional environment
8) Raising the moral of Employees:
Consequences of high moral & low moral.
Management can boost the moral of its employees by giving basis infrastructural
support, creating systems that reward effort, strengthening its official channels of
communication, encouraging upward
Communication, controlling the grapevine & taking measures to earn the trust of
employees.
Certain strategies opted by MNCs to boost morale of the employees:
1. Keep employees feeling their work is more than just a job.
Everyone wants to feel that his or her work has a higher purpose. Sometimes,
though, that purpose gets lost in the day-to-day grind. One of the key ways that
Snagajob.com, an online job-search company, based in Glen Allen, Virginia,
inspires its 126 employees is by sharing "I Got a Job!" stories that show them the
value of their work. Circulated by email, the real-life stories come from grateful
job seekers who recently landed a new job through the company's website.
2. Take time to creatively celebrate accomplishments.
It's natural to focus on what's ahead rather than reflect on how much has been
achieved. Taking time to reflect, though, helps employees appreciate how much
they have done. All departments at Acuity, a financial-services company based in
Sheboygan, Wis., are asked each year to recognize their own work by providing a
list of significant accomplishments of their team. The lists are reviewed by Acuity
officers, who select the 100 most outstanding achievements for inclusion in a "Top
100 Accomplishments" list. The latest list was designed as a book, Acuity World
Records, with the help of Guinness World Records, and given to all 831
employees.
3. Grant time off to employees to pursue projects they are passionate about.
Personal projects can provide an energizing break from regular responsibilities and
can serve as a source of innovation for a company. Atlassian, a developer of
collaboration software based in Sydney, encourages creativity during its "FedEx
Day." During this event, all 62 employees can work on anything that excites them
-- as long as it is somewhat related to Atlassian products or processes, can be
completed in the allotted time, and is fun. Employees have from 2 p.m. on a
Thursday until 4 p.m. Friday, giving them roughly 24 hours to deliver a project
(thus the name, FedEx Day). Then at a presentation, participants show off the
results of their projects. From these ideas, Atlassian has adopted more than a
dozen projects, ranging from product upgrades to process improvements.
4. Mix up the company's usual way of doing things.
Departing from the customary routine of meetings and cubicle life can go a long
way toward building morale. The accounting firm Ehrhardt Keefe Steiner &
Hottman, based in Denver, uses the concept of neighborhoods to shake things up.
All 387 employees are organized into neighborhoods, based on the floors or
sections of floors in each office. These groups have regular get-togethers and
shape the contours of meetings. For example, during an all-employee meeting day,
as the firm staged a neighborhood basketball tournament, each group came up
with team names, homemade jerseys, mascots, and cheerleaders.
5. Don't forget to have fun.
For the online discounter FatWallet, based in Rockton, Ill., fun is a regular part of
the schedule. Its 55 employees are invited to play in a monthly Game Day, an inhouse competition with activities ranging from Trivial Pursuit to Wii bowling
matches. The company also offers quarterly "fun" rewards when staffers achieve
certain goals, such as hockey games, casino nights, or playdays at at amusement
parks. Team-building events have included a city scavenger hunt in Chicago and a
rooftop Cubs game.
6. Train employees to develop positive attitudes.
During the height of the recession in 2009, employee morale became a big issue
for 4Imprint, a maker of customized promotional products, based in Oshkosh,
Wis. The company's training team decided to try to boost morale by setting up
classes for the 419 employees to watch and discuss videos with inspiring themes
like Lance Armstrong's comeback from cancer and the friendly culture at
Southwest Airlines.
7. Offer time away from the office to do some good.
Another way to build employee morale and camaraderie is through community
service. Studer Group, a Gulf Breeze, Fla.-based management consulting firm,
gives its 114 employees four paid hours a month to volunteer for a charitable
initiative or organization of their choice. Departments also take on volunteer
projects as a group.
8. Free Yoga classes
9. Team-based commissions
10. Work/life balance is encouraged with flexible schedules.
11. on-site gym available to all employees
12. state-of-the-art office
13. extensive training programs
14. a profit-sharing plan
15. Unlimited vacation days
16. Allowing pets in the office
For example Google does the following things:
1. Google provides the surviving spouse or partner of a deceased employee 50% of
their salary for the next 10 years.
2. Googlers in San Francisco and Mountain View report being able to bring their pets
to work.
3. Employees in Mountain View, California, and New York City have an on-site
gym.
4. They can also enjoy beer and wine in the office on Fridays.
5. Googlers get free meals and snacks in the office, which one Glassdoor reviewer
called "varied and delicious." Reviewers called the food "healthy," "tasty," and
even "on par with any of the top restaurants in NYC."
6. Google offers a 50% 401k match up to $8,250.
7. New mothers get paid leave up to 22 weeks, while fathers and adoptive parents get
between seven and 12 weeks of paid leave. One senior software engineer wrote the
benefit "...helps create an understanding that any team member might go on leave
now and again, and that this is expected and normal and okay."
8. First year engineers get 15 days of paid time off — that jumps to 20 days after
three years and 25 days after five years. And anyone can take an unpaid three
month leave of absence.
9) Warning & Reprimand:
To warn is to inform a person of unpleasant consequences.
Management notices the misdemeanor and brings it to the notice of the concerned
employee----- Oral or Soft warning ----- Warning in writing or memo---- After 2 memos
are issued service of the employee is terminated.
Chapter III : Methods & Modes of Communication
Methods – Verbal & Non verbal
Media – Telephone, Fax, Computer, Internet.

Methods	Modes
Verbal	Non-verbal	Electronics
Oral	Written	Body language	Silence	Fax
Face-to-face	Letters	Facial expressions	Signs	Computers
Telephone	Memos	Gestures	Postures	Internet
Notices	Posters	Colours	E-mail
Circulars	Dress & grooming	Maps
Reports	Proxemics	Graphs & Charts

Selection of methods should be based on –
1. Speed 2. Accuracy 3. Circumstances 4. Confidence and safety 5. Expenses
6. Impression 7. Feedback
Oral Communication: Oral communication is communication by means of spoken
words.
Principles of oral communications:
1. Know your objective
2. Know your audience
3. Know your subject
4. Know how to use your voice
5. Know how to use body language
6. Know when to stop
Advantages:

1. Its direct & time saving	2. It saves money
3. It conveys the exact meaning of words	4. It provides immediate feedback
5. It is more persuasive in nature	6. On-the-spot additions, deletions and corrections are possible
7. Confidential messages can be communicated	8. It is informal and friendlier
9. Develop relations	10. Motivates the speaker.

Disadvantages:

1. It lacks legal validity	2. Possibility of misunderstanding
3. It lacks accountability	4. Problem of retention
5. The need for good speaking skills	6. Not always effective
7. Lacks planning	8. Diversion of subject matter

Face-to-face communication

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. Combination of verbal & non-verbal factors	1. Difficult to practice in large organizations
2. Immediate feedback possible	2. Not effective if the receiver does not pay attention
3. Modifications while delivering the message is possible	3. Not effective in large gatherings
4. Particularly suitable for discussions

Written communication: Written communication is the expression of language by
means of visible signs.

Advantages	Disadvantage
1. Reference	1. Time, trouble & expenses
2. Permanent record	2. Feedback is slow
3. Legal validity	3. Problem of storage
4. Aids memory & retention	4. Lacks friendliness
5. Accurate & organized	5. Unsuited to countries where illiteracy rate is high
6. Fixing responsibility	6. Problem of instant clarification
7. Wider reach	7. Problem of writers
8. Goodwill	8. Problem of communicating secret information
9. Less chances of misunderstanding
10. Suitable for lengthy messages
11. Corporate image

Non-verbal Communication:
Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us
spend about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts,
and ideas to others. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our
communication is of a non-verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body
posture and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear
our clothes or the silence we keep.
In person-to-person communications our messages are sent on two levels simultaneously.
If the nonverbal cues and the spoken message are incongruous, the flow of
communication is hindered. Right or wrong, the receiver of the communication tends to
base the intentions of the sender on the non- verbal cues he receives.
Categories and Features
G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:
Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone
of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.
Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through creative
expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.
Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal
flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.
Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or egobuilding symbols.
Our concern here will be with what Porter has called the physical method of non-verbal
communication.
Knowledge of non-verbal communication is important managers who serve as leaders
of organizational "teams," for at least two reasons:
 To function effectively as a team leader the manager must interact with the other
members successfully. Non-verbal cues, when interpreted correctly, provide him
with one means to do so.
 The team members project attitudes and feelings through non-verbal
communication. Some personal needs such as approval, growth, achievement, and
recognition may be met in effective teams. The extent to which these needs are
met is closely related to how perceptive the team leader and team members are to
non-verbal communication in themselves and in others on the team.
If the team members show a true awareness to non-verbal cues, the organization
will have a better chance to succeed, for it will be an open, honest, and confronting unit.
Argyle and his associates have been studying the features of nonverbal communication
that provide information to managers and their team members.
Non verbal communication is indirect, without words or without verbal messages. Non
verbal communication constitutes 45% of the impact of message in oral communication.
The major elements of non-verbal communication can be divided into body language
(Kinesics), vocal tone, space & proximics, dress & grooming etc.
1. Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication. The
superior in the organization generally maintains eye contact longer than the
subordinate. The direct stare of the sender of the message conveys candor and
openness. It elicits a feeling of trust. Downward glances are generally associated
with modesty. Eyes rolled upward are associated with fatigue.
2. Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey
information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are
monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these
expressions may be similar across cultures.
3. Gestures : One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a
hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While
some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others
are individually learned and idiosyncratic.
A gesture is an action of body , hand or head, which conveys a message. Eg: yes,
no, Namaste, wait.
a. Communicating information: eg: ‗V‘ sign, pointing finger etc.
b. Communicating information : eg: clapping indicates appreciation, fistclenching shows aggression, face touching shows anxiety
c. Supports speech
d. Expressing self image
4. Posture: The way we stand or sit, the position of the hand & head, basically how
we carry ourselves. Eg. Hunched shoulders show low confidence, in emergency a
person tends to sit on the edge of a chair. Posture can be used to determine a
participant‘s degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between
communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other
communicator. Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal
relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person‘s
left side is parallel to the other‘s right side, leads to favorable perception of
communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or a
decrease in a backwards lean also signify positive sentiment during
communication. Posture is understood through such indicators as direction of lean,
body orientation, arm position, and body openness.
5. Tactile Communication
Communication through touch is obviously non-verbal. Used properly it can
create a more direct message than dozens of words; used improperly it can build
barriers and cause mistrust. You can easily invade someone's space through this
type of communication. If it is used reciprocally, it indicates solidarity; if not used
reciprocally, it tends to indicate differences in status. Touch not only facilitates the
sending of the message, but the emotional impact of the message as well.
6. Dress & grooming : Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative
purpose. This man's clothes identify him as male and a police officer; his badges
and shoulder sleeve insignia give information about his job and rank. Elements
such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, odors, and clothing send
nonverbal messages during interaction.
7. Proxemics: Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical
space around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message
influences the way the message is interpreted.
The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures and different
settings within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into
four main categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space.
The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human
behavior regarding personal space. Hargie & Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such
territories:
1) Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associated with someone who has
exclusive use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the
owner‘s permission.
2) Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no ―right‖ to occupancy, but
people may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For example,
someone may sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved if someone
else sits there.
3) Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set
period, such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a
limited claim over that space, they often exceed that claim. For example, it was
found that people take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to
take that space.
4) Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For
example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk
around the group rather than disturb it.
Space can also be divided into :
a. Intimate distance
b. Personal distance
c. Social distance
d. Public distance
8. Paralanguage: Includes pitch, volume, intonation etc. The tone of voice, rate of
speech, pause, accent can not only communicate but alter the meaning
significantly. Researchers have found that the tone, pitch, quality of voice, and
rate of speaking convey emotions that can be accurately judged regardless of the
content of the message. The important thing to gain from this is that the voice is
important, not just as the conveyor of the message, but as a complement to the
message. As a communicator you should be sensitive to the influence of tone,
pitch, and quality of your voice on the interpretation of your message by the
receiver.
9. Silence
Silence can be a positive or negative influence in the communications process. It can
provide a link between messages or sever relationships. It can create tension and
uneasiness or create a peaceful situation. Silence can also be judgmental by indicating
favor or disfavor - agreement or disagreement.
For example, suppose a manager finds a couple of his staff members resting.
If he believes these staff members are basically lazy, the idleness conveys to him that
they are "goofing off" and should be given additional assignments.
If he believes these staff members are self-motivated and good workers, the idleness
conveys to him that they are taking a well-deserved "break."
If he is personally insecure, the idleness conveys to him that they are threatening his
authority.
10. Time
Time can be an indicator of status. How long will you give the staff member who wishes
to speak to you? How long will you make him wait to see you? Do you maintain a
schedule? Is your schedule such that your subordinates must arrange their schedules to
suit yours? In a healthy organization, the manager and his subordinates use time to
communicate their mutual respect to each other.
11. Visual & Auditory Signs & Signals: The word sign has been derived from the
latin word signum which means mark. Signs eg. Plus, minus, multiplication,
divisions, can be used in chemistry, maths, music, road signs etc. Auditory signs
includes door bell, college bell, ambulance siren etc.
12. Posters: Posters are combination of verbal & non-verbal factors, because they
consists of pictures as well as words. Posters have three parts namely :
e. Headline : This is short but catchy slogan
f. Illustration: This is the visual part consisting of pictures or photographs.
g. Copy : This is the written matter, which gives necessary details.
 like old communist poster hero
 key word - be inspired
 shirt and white tie
 looking up into the sky
 sharp clean holy preacher
 suit – businesslike
 angle of face - on a mission –
sun over flag
A new day dawning in America
13. Colours : Color is a form of non verbal communication. It is not a static energy
and its meaning can change from one day to the next with any individual - it all
depends on what energy they are expressing at that point in time. Every colour
represents something.
Color Meaning
Red
Red is the color of fire and blood, so it is associated with energy, war, danger, strength,
power, determination as well as passion, desire, and love.
Red is a very emotionally intense color. It enhances human metabolism, increases
respiration rate, and raises blood pressure. It has very high visibility, which is why stop
signs, stoplights, and fire equipment are usually painted red. In heraldry, red is used to
indicate courage. It is a color found in many national flags.
Red brings text and images to the foreground. Use it as an accent color to stimulate
people to make quick decisions; it is a perfect color for 'Buy Now' or 'Click Here' buttons
on Internet banners and websites. In advertising, red is often used to evoke erotic feelings
(red lips, red nails, red-light districts, 'Lady in Red', etc). Red is widely used to indicate
danger (high voltage signs, traffic lights). This color is also commonly associated with
energy, so you can use it when promoting energy drinks, games, cars, items related to
sports and high physical activity.
Light red represents joy, sexuality, passion, sensitivity, and love.
Pink signifies romance, love, and friendship. It denotes feminine qualities and
passiveness.
Dark red is associated with vigor, willpower, rage, anger, leadership, courage, longing,
malice, and wrath.
Brown suggests stability and denotes masculine qualities.
Reddish-brown is associated with harvest and fall.
Orange
Orange combines the energy of red and the happiness of yellow. It is associated with joy,
sunshine, and the tropics. Orange represents enthusiasm, fascination, happiness,
creativity, determination, attraction, success, encouragement, and stimulation.
To the human eye, orange is a very hot color, so it gives the sensation of heat.
Nevertheless, orange is not as aggressive as red. Orange increases oxygen supply to the
brain, produces an invigorating effect, and stimulates mental activity. It is highly
accepted among young people. As a citrus color, orange is associated with healthy food
and stimulates appetite. Orange is the color of fall and harvest. In heraldry, orange is
symbolic of strength and endurance.
Orange has very high visibility, so you can use it to catch attention and highlight the most
important elements of your design. Orange is very effective for promoting food products
and toys.
Dark orange can mean deceit and distrust.
Red-orange corresponds to desire, sexual passion, pleasure, domination, aggression, and
thirst for action.
Gold evokes the feeling of prestige. The meaning of gold is illumination, wisdom, and
wealth. Gold often symbolizes high quality.
Yellow
Yellow is the color of sunshine. It's associated with joy, happiness, intellect, and energy.
Yellow produces a warming effect, arouses cheerfulness, stimulates mental activity, and
generates muscle energy. Yellow is often associated with food. Bright, pure yellow is an
attention getter, which is the reason taxicabs are painted this color. When overused,
yellow may have a disturbing effect; it is known that babies cry more in yellow rooms.
Yellow is seen before other colors when placed against black; this combination is often
used to issue a warning. In heraldry, yellow indicates honor and loyalty. Later the
meaning of yellow was connected with cowardice.
Use yellow to evoke pleasant, cheerful feelings. You can choose yellow to promote
children's products and items related to leisure. Yellow is very effective for attracting
attention, so use it to highlight the most important elements of your design. Men usually
perceive yellow as a very lighthearted, 'childish' color, so it is not recommended to use
yellow when selling prestigious, expensive products to men – nobody will buy a yellow
business suit or a yellow Mercedes. Yellow is an unstable and spontaneous color, so
avoid using yellow if you want to suggest stability and safety. Light yellow tends to
disappear into white, so it usually needs a dark color to highlight it. Shades of yellow are
visually unappealing because they loose cheerfulness and become dingy.
Dull (dingy) yellow represents caution, decay, sickness, and jealousy.
Light yellow is associated with intellect, freshness, and joy.
Green
Green is the color of nature. It symbolizes growth, harmony, freshness, and fertility.
Green has strong emotional correspondence with safety. Dark green is also commonly
associated with money.
Green has great healing power. It is the most restful color for the human eye; it can
improve vision. Green suggests stability and endurance. Sometimes green denotes lack of
experience; for example, a 'greenhorn' is a novice. In heraldry, green indicates growth
and hope. Green, as opposed to red, means safety; it is the color of free passage in road
traffic.
Use green to indicate safety when advertising drugs and medical products. Green is
directly related to nature, so you can use it to promote 'green' products. Dull, darker green
is commonly associated with money, the financial world, banking, and Wall Street.
Dark green is associated with ambition, greed, and jealousy.
Yellow-green can indicate sickness, cowardice, discord, and jealousy.
Aqua is associated with emotional healing and protection.
Olive green is the traditional color of peace.
Blue
Blue is the color of the sky and sea. It is often associated with depth and stability. It
symbolizes trust, loyalty, wisdom, confidence, intelligence, faith, truth, and heaven.
Blue is considered beneficial to the mind and body. It slows human metabolism and
produces a calming effect. Blue is strongly associated with tranquility and calmness. In
heraldry, blue is used to symbolize piety and sincerity.
You can use blue to promote products and services related to cleanliness (water
purification filters, cleaning liquids, vodka), air and sky (airlines, airports, air
conditioners), water and sea (sea voyages, mineral water). As opposed to emotionally
warm colors like red, orange, and yellow; blue is linked to consciousness and intellect.
Use blue to suggest precision when promoting high-tech products.
Blue is a masculine color; according to studies, it is highly accepted among males. Dark
blue is associated with depth, expertise, and stability; it is a preferred color for corporate
America.
Avoid using blue when promoting food and cooking, because blue suppresses appetite.
When used together with warm colors like yellow or red, blue can create high-impact,
vibrant designs; for example, blue-yellow-red is a perfect color scheme for a superhero.
Light blue is associated with health, healing, tranquility, understanding, and softness.
Dark blue represents knowledge, power, integrity, and seriousness.
Purple
Purple combines the stability of blue and the energy of red. Purple is associated with
royalty. It symbolizes power, nobility, luxury, and ambition. It conveys wealth and
extravagance. Purple is associated with wisdom, dignity, independence, creativity,
mystery, and magic.
According to surveys, almost 75 percent of pre-adolescent children prefer purple to all
other colors. Purple is a very rare color in nature; some people consider it to be artificial.
Light purple is a good choice for a feminine design. You can use bright purple when
promoting children's products.
Light purple evokes romantic and nostalgic feelings.
Dark purple evokes gloom and sad feelings. It can cause frustration.
White
White is associated with light, goodness, innocence, purity, and virginity. It is considered
to be the color of perfection.
White means safety, purity, and cleanliness. As opposed to black, white usually has a
positive connotation. White can represent a successful beginning. In heraldry, white
depicts faith and purity.
In advertising, white is associated with coolness and cleanliness because it's the color of
snow. You can use white to suggest simplicity in high-tech products. White is an
appropriate color for charitable organizations; angels are usually imagined wearing white
clothes. White is associated with hospitals, doctors, and sterility, so you can use white to
suggest safety when promoting medical products. White is often associated with low
weight, low-fat food, and dairy products.
Black
Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, death, evil, and mystery.
Black is a mysterious color associated with fear and the unknown (black holes). It usually
has a negative connotation (blacklist, black humor, 'black death'). Black denotes strength
and authority; it is considered to be a very formal, elegant, and prestigious color (black
tie, black Mercedes). In heraldry, black is the symbol of grief.
Black gives the feeling of perspective and depth, but a black background diminishes
readability. A black suit or dress can make you look thinner. When designing for a
gallery of art or photography, you can use a black or gray background to make the other
colors stand out. Black contrasts well with bright colors. Combined with red or orange –
other very powerful colors – black gives a very aggressive color scheme.
eg. Traffic signals, Interpretation of different colours like red represents danger or
is considered as auspicious in wedding, white purity or peace etc.
Colours and Branding:
A brand‘s logo and visual identity will comprise a number of visual cues, such
as shapes, symbols, number, and words. But the number one visual component
that people remember most is colour. In fact, colour increases brand recognition
by up to 80%.
When it comes to branding, the power of color is both emotional and practical.
On an emotional level, color can affect how consumers feel when they look at a
brand, while on a practical level it can help a brand stand out in the crowd.
A number of studies on the relationship between color and branding
(here, here and here) reveal that up to 90% of snap judgments made about
products can be based on color alone, that colors influence how consumers view
the ‗personality‘ of the brand in question, and that the relationship between
brands and color hinges on the perceived appropriateness of the color being the
right ‗fit‘ for the particular brand.
Whether you're a designer or a business owner, it's helpful to know color
meanings and symbolism so you can make informed decisions. If you choose a
color meaning 'tranquility' for your extreme sports brand, you might be sending
the wrong message.
This is all well and good, but how do you go about choosing a color that
suits your brand? In this article, we will examine the use of color in branding
and give you an 11-color guide to help you choose the perfect one for your
brand.
01. Red – For Danger, Passion, Excitement & Energy
Meanings: Red has a number of different contextual associations and in
branding can deliver a highly visible punch. It has the ability to rev desire; and
not surprisingly when it is the color of fire, danger, and blood on one hand; and
love, sexuality and passion on the other. It is a bold, energetic and lively color
that can symbolize strength, confidence and power.
02. Orange – Fresh, Youthful, Creative & Adventurous
Meanings: Blending the warmth of red and the optimism of yellow, orange
communicates activity and energy. And of course it‘s hard not to go past orange
as the color of, well, oranges, and all their vitamin c byproducts, which
immediately makes orange feel fresh and healthy. Orange is not for everyone (it
was certainly the color of the decade in the 1970s) and can therefore tap into
associations of youthfulness, creativity and adventure.
03. Yellow – Optimistic, Cheerful, Playful & Happy
Meanings: Being the color of sunshine, yellow puts a smile on the dial. It is the
most visible color from a distance (which is why it‘s used for street signs) and
communicates cheerfulness, friendliness, joy and energy (who doesn‘t need
more yellow in their life?) It can also be associated with mental clarity and
intellect (again, who doesn‘t need more yellow?) However, yellow is also a
cautionary color used in life vests, police cordoning tape and hazardous areas.
04. Green – Natural, Vitality, Prestige & Wealth
Meanings: Green has two very common meanings that are quite paradoxical;
one being nature and the environment, and the other being finance and wealth.
When it comes to nature, green represents plant life and growth and is
consequently used to convey being ‗green‘ in the environmental, sustainable,
organic, natural sense of the word. And of course green is, as the saying goes,
‗the color of money‘ (US money, that is) and therefore associated with wealth
and stability.
05. Blue – Communicative, Trustworthy, Calming & Depressed
Meanings: Blue is the most universally preferred color, perhaps for its very
versatile qualities. It is a favorite color for companies that wish to convey
reliability, trustworthiness and communication (I‘m looking at you Facebook,
Twitter and Samsung) and for expressing the authority and officialdom of
organizations (oh, hey there Constable). It is also appreciated for it‘s calming
and harmonious qualities being associated with the sea and sky. However, being
associated with the emotional feeling of being ‗blue‘ it is also used to express
sadness or depression.
06. Purple – Royalty, Majesty, Spiritual & Mysterious
Meanings: Purple is a low arousal color. It is traditionally associated with
royalty, majesty or nobility as well as having a spiritual or mysterious quality.
Darker shades often represent luxury or opulence while lighter lavender shades
are quite feminine, sentimental and even nostalgic.
07. Brown – Organic, Wholesome, Simple & Honest
Meanings: Brown gets a lot of use in this era of organic and natural food,
beauty and products. Nature inspired it represents a feeling of wholesomeness,
orderliness, and being grounded. It is simple, strong, durable and honest and
may express that your brand has better things to care about than superfluous
color, when really… (mind trick!).
08. Pink – Feminine, Sentimental, Romantic & Exciting
Meanings: Pink has long been (stereotypically) associated with females and is
often viewed as being ‗girly.‘ However, like all colors, pink is quite diverse and
the level of intensity can impact its meaning. Pale pink, often marketed as the
official color of little girls, represents sweetness while dusty pink can be more
sentimental and light pink more romantic. At the other end of the scale, hot pink
indicates youthfulness, energy, fun and excitement. A soft pink is now often
referred to as 'millennial pink', for the generation's fondness for the blush tone.
Soft pink interiors, graphics and more are particularly popular with Generation
Y.
09. Black – Sophisticated, Formal, Luxurious & Sorrowful
Meanings: While color is more likely to increase brand recognition there‘s no
reason black—when used appropriately—can‘t be just as distinctive, memorable
and communicative of a brand‘s attributes. Black is to be taken seriously. It
represents power, luxury, sophistication and exclusivity on one hand; and death,
evil and mystery on the other. From formality to mourning to power, black is
bold, classic and not to be fooled with.
10. White – Purity, Simplicity, Innocence & Minimalism
Meanings: White represents simplicity, purity, innocence and perfection. And if
you had to identify one brand that has used white to convey its brand message to
perfection it would have to be Apple – white represents the simplicity of the
products in both their form and function. White also comes with a starkness or
sterility about it, which is often used be designers to convey a minimalist
aesthetic and clean, modern quality.
11. Multicolor – Variety
Meanings: Of course, what about mixing multiple colors in one logo, such as
Google, the Olympics and NBC? Diverse color generally indicates variety – be
it representative of people, countries, or offerings.
Color is an important consideration in your brand identity system. Colors
have a significant impact on people’s emotional state. They also have been
shown to impact people‘s ability to concentrate and learn. They have a wide
variety of specific mental associations. In fact, the effects are physiological,
psychological, and sociological.
For instance:
 Non-primary colors are more calming than primary colors.
 Blue is the most calming of the primary colors, followed closely by a
lighter red.
 Test takers score higher and weight lifters lift more in blue rooms.
 Blue text increases reading retention.
 Yellow evokes cheerfulness. Houses with yellow trim or flower gardens
sell faster.
 Reds and oranges encourage diners to eat quickly and leave. Red also
makes food more appealing and influences people to eat more. (It is no
coincidence that fast food restaurants almost always use these colors.)
 Pink enhances appetites and has been shown to calm prison inmates.
 Blue and black suppress appetites.
 Children prefer primary colors. (Notice that children‘s toys and books
often use these colors.)
 Forest green and burgundy appeals to the wealthiest 3 percent of
Americans and often raises the perceived price of an item.
 Orange is often used to make an expensive item seem less expensive.
 Red clothing can convey power.
 Red trim is used in bars and casinos because it can cause people to lose
track of time.
 White is typically associated with cool, clean and fresh.
 Red is often associated with Christmas and orange with Halloween and
Thanksgiving.
 Black clothes make people look thinner.
 Black is also associated with elegance and sophistication. It also seems
mysterious.
Colors also have a functional impact on readability, eye-strain, ability to
attract attention, ability to be seen at night, etc. This is important in choosing
colors for signing, website pages, prints ads, and other marketing media.
 The most visible color is yellow.
 The most legible of all color combinations are black on yellow and green
on white followed by red on white.
 It is no surprise that most traffic signs use these color combinations.
 Black on white is the easiest to read, on paper, and on computer screens.
 Hard colors (red, orange and yellow) are more visible and tend to make
objects look larger and closer. They are easier to focus upon. They create
excitement and cause people to over-estimate time.
 Soft colors (violet, blue and green) are less visible and tend to make
objects look smaller and further away. They aren‘t as easy to focus upon.
They have a calming effect, increase concentration, and cause people to
under-estimate time.
Usually, it is advantageous for a brand to consistently ―own‖ certain colors,
which provide an additional recognition cue.
14. Maps, Graphs & Charts:
h. Maps: A map is a drawing on paper that shows location, size & other
features of countries.
i. Line / Pie / Bar graph: present numerical or statistical data.
j. Charts : are used for mounting maps & graphs for better visual effects.
Modes of communication
1. Telephone – Telephone is a device that transmits speech at a distance through the
medium of electronic waves. In 1876 telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
Types of telephones:-
1. Landline or standard telephones
2. Cellular or Mobile phones: These are wireless devices that use radio waves to transmit
sounds. The two main cellular systems in operation are GSM – Global System for Mobile
Communications, and CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access.
3. Satellite phones: These are used in areas where communication links are absent or
destroyed.
4. Ethernet phones: There are digital phones which connect directly to a computer
network.
Telephone services: 1) Networking: – This works as a base for computer network and
fax transmission.
2) Teleconferencing and videoconferencing : - Sounds and video are transmitted via
phone lines or satellites, so that people in different places and different countries can be
communicate with one another at the same time.
Telephone etiquette:
1. Speak politely, precisely, clearly, confidently. Be positive & talk friendly with a
smile in voice.
2. Avoid shouting or speaking too low.
3. Listen carefully and if a part of message is not clear, politely ask for repetition.
4. While answering telephone calls, introduce yourself, your company & greet the
person.
5. Before making a call, one must be mentally prepared, if need be note down points.
6. Make sure you have delivered the message completely and is understood by the
receiving party.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. Time saving device.	1. Body language cannot be communicated.
2. Immediate feedback	2. It is sometimes not time saving
3. Legal validity	3. Call may be made at a wrong time.
4. Intercom facility
5. It provides a large range of services like

STD (Subscriber Trunk dialing), ISD (International Subscriber dialing), call waiting, call forwarding etc.

2. Fax: Fax is connected to telephone , can be used to send documents, photos, charts,
graphs, drawings, diagrams, certificates etc. It scans a printed page, converts it into
signals & transmit this signal over a telephone line to the receiving fax machine.
Drawbacks – cost, time, quality.
3. Computer –
1. Parts of computers – input, output, storage, processing devices.
2. What is software & hardware?
3. Uses of computer.
4. LAN, WAN, Internet.
5. Uses of Internet – Search, distant learning, E-commerce, videoconferencing, E-mail ,
social networking sites, cloud computing etc.
Chapter IV
Barriers to communication
The word barrier means an obstacle, a hindrance or simply a problem that comes in a way of
transmission of a message and blocks the process, either completely or partially.
Different types of barriers are as follows:
1. Physical or environmental barriers:
a. Noise - The noise created by external factors like traffic, playing of loud music,
trains and airplanes, or by crowds of people, affects our communication.
b. Time & distance - Time becomes a physical barrier when people have to
communicate across different time zones in different countries. The physical
distance between people who need to communicate can also cause problems
because it does not allow oral or face-to-face communication.
c. Defects in communication system – Mechanical problems and defects in
instruments of communication also create physical barriers, as in a faulty fax
machine or typewriter. Similarly, a computer that hangs, or a dead telephone line
can lead to non-transmission of messages. eg. No range in mobile, technical
problem in mike or speakers.
d. Wrong selection of medium – The sender selects the medium which is not
familiar to the receiver.
e. Physiological defects like stammering, hearing defects, mumbling while speaking
etc.
2. Language or Semantic barriers:
Language is the main medium of communication and words are its tools. Language
proves to be a barrier at diferent levels, such as semantic (meaning), syntactic (grammar),
phonological (pronunciation, intonation, pitch etc.) and finally linguistic (across
languages) Thus, language barriers can arise in different ways:
a. Jargon or unfamiliar terminology - There are some special terms or technical
words used by people belonging to a certain group or field of work such as
doctors, lawyers, computer software engineers or college students. They use
words which are their own, specialised jargon which cannot be understood by
anyone outside their group.
b. Difference in language – Unfamiliar language becomes a barrier when people do
not know each other‗s language. This barrier can be overcome by using a
common medium of communication, as in a classroom. Translation is also an
important way of overcoming this barrier.
c. Words are of two kinds: extensional and intentional words. Extensional words are
clear in their meaning and therefore do not create barriers – such as words like
boy,
chair, garden etc. Intentional words are words that describe and they can be
understood differently by different people, according to the meaning that a person
gives to the word. Thus good, bad, beautiful are intentional words, and a simple
sentence like she is a good girl. can create confusion because the meaning of
the word ‗good‘ is unclear.
d. Sometimes, the same word is used in different contexts, giving rise totally
different meanings. A word like =hard‗, for example can be used in different
ways: hard chair,
hard-hearted, hard drink, having a hard time – all these use the same word but the
meanings are different.
e. Barriers can be created when we come across words, which have the same sound
when pronounced, but which mean very different things. Examples: words like
fair and fare; bear and bare; council and counsel.
3. Psychological barriers:
Psyche means mind. Psychological barriers are created in the mind. Communication is a
mental activity and its aim is to create understanding. But the human mind is complex
and not all communication can result in understanding. There are several kinds of
psychological barriers which can come in the way of understanding.
(a) Emotions: Emotions are among the most common psychological barriers to
communication. The emotion may be connected to the communication received or it
may be present in the sender‗s or receiver‗s mind, even before the communication takes
place. In both cases, it acts as a barrier. Emotions can be positive, like happiness and joy,
or negative, like fear, anger, mistrust etc. Both positive and negative emotions act as
barriers,
if they are not kept in check.
(b) Prejudice: A prejudice is an opinion held by a person for which there is no rational
basis or valid reason. It can be against something or someone, or in favour of it, but it
becomes a barrier to a meaningful communication. Prejudices are based on ignorance and
lack of
information, e.g., prejudices about certain communities or groups of people.
(c) Halo effect: Sometimes our reactions to people are not balanced or objective; they are
of an extreme nature. Either we like a person so much that we can find no shortcomings
in her/him, or we dislike someone so much that we can see nothing good in her/him. In
both cases, we commit errors of judgment and fail to understand the person.
(d) Self-image or different perceptions: Every person has in her/his mind a certain image
of herself/himself. S/he thinks of herself/himself in a certain way. This is their perception
of themselves, their self-image. One‗s self-image is the product of one‗s heredity, one‗s
environment and one‗s experiences, and thus every person‗s self-image is unique and
different from the others. Self-image can create a barrier because we accept
communication
which is compatible with our self-image. We avoid or reject communication, which goes
against our perception of ourselves.
(e) Closed Mind: A closed mind is one which refuses to accept an idea or opinion on a
subject, because it is different from his idea. Such persons form their opinion on a
subject, and then refuse to listen to anyone who has something different to say about it. A
closed mind may be the result of some past experience or just habit. It is very difficult to
remove this psychological barrier.
(f) Status: Status refers to rank or position. It could be economic, social or professional
status. In any organisation, hierarchy creates differences in rank, and this is a normal
situation. Thus, status by itself does not cause barriers; but when a person becomes too
conscious of his status, whether high or low, then status becomes a barrier. For instance,
in a business organisation, a senior executive who is unduly conscious of his seniority
will not communicate properly with his juniors, and will refrain from giving them the
required
information. Similarly, if a junior is acutely conscious of his junior status, he will avoid
communicating with his seniors, even when it is necessary
(g) Inattentiveness and Impatience: Sometimes the receiver may not pay attention to the
sender‗s message, or he may be too impatient to hear the message fully and properly.
Such barriers are common in oral communication.
Overcoming psychological barriers:
1. Adopt flexible and open-minded attitude
2. Training of listening skills
3. Exposure to different environment, views will help to broaden outlook
4. Listening with empathy helps in making oneself more adapting to other‘s perceptions.
4. Cross-cultural barriers: Mary Allen Guffey defines communication as ,‖the complex
system of values, traits, morals and customs shared by a society.‖
Cultural diversity within a country, and cultural differences between people from
different countries, are a major cause of barriers. This is because people are conditioned
by their cultures, and they develop certain habits of working, communicating, eating,
dressing etc. according to their cultural conditioning. They find it difficult to get through
to people who come from an alien culture, and who have different habits. A simple thing
like a greeting to
welcome a person is vastly different in India from a greeting in, for example, an Arab
country, or in Japan. Food and dress habits of a different culture can make a person
uncomfortable. Concepts of space and time are also different across cultures; for
example,
Indians do not mind sitting close to each other and sharing space in offices or in public
places. However, a European would not be able to tolerate such intrusive behaviour.
Similarly, people who come from a culture where time is very valuable will be impatient
with those who come from a culture with an easygoing attitude towards time, where
everything is done in a slow, unhurried way.
a. Cultural diversity
b. Time
c. Space
d. Food
e. Manners
f. Decision making
Overcoming Barriers :
Barriers disrupt communication and interfere with understanding. They must be
overcome if communication has to be effective.
Physical barriers are comparatively easier to overcome. The use of loudspeakers and
microphones can remove the barriers of noise and distance in crowded places like railway
stations. Traffic signals and non-verbal gestures of the traffic policeman remove physical
barriers on the roads. Technological advancement has
helped in reducing the communication gap arising due to time and
distance .It is possible to make an alternative arrangement, should
the technological instruments fail. A back-up plan helps in tidying
over any snag.
Language or Semantic Barriers can be overcome if the sender and the receiver choose
a language which both of them understand very well. Help from a translator or an
interpreter also helps in overcoming the language barrier. Exposure to the target
language and training oneself in the acquisition of skills of the given language too help in
overcoming the language barrier. Language barriers can be avoided by careful study and
accurate use of language. Clarity should be the main objective when using
language. Jargon should be avoided.
Psychological barriers, as also cross-cultural barriers are difficult to overcome, as
they are difficult to identify and even more difficult to address. Even these can be
avoided or reduced by adopting a flexible and open-minded attitude. The ultimate aim is
to build bridges of understanding between people – that is the main aim of
communication. Training oneself to listen to different views , exposing oneself to
different environments help in broadening one‗s outlook and cultivating tolerance to
multiple views. Teaching oneself to listen with empathy helps in making oneself more
open to others ‗perceptions.
While dealing with psychological or cross-cultural barriers the
sender should make it a point to–
(i) Use language that is politically neutral and correct.
(ii) Present views in simple and objective manner
(iii) Focus on the objective of communication
Chapter V
Listening
Importance of listening
1. Listening is the first means of acquiring information
2. Listening is the first means of learning new language
3. Helps to solve problems
4. Helps in framing plans and policies
5. Helps to share information
6. Helps in decision-making
7. Helps to know organization
8. Develops better relations
9. Provides encouragement
Nature of listening process:
Listening is such a routine activity that most people do not even realize that they are poor
listeners, and are, therefore, in need of developing their listening skills. Others may feel
that listening is a very difficult task, perhaps, next to impossible to achieve. But the truth
is that good listening habits can be cultivated, and with practice, much can be achieved.
Understanding the complex process of listening, itself, may help people become good
listeners. Listening involves the following inter-related steps in sequential order:
Receiving-----Attending-----Interpreting-----Remembering-----Evaluating-----Responding
. Receiving: This is a kind of physiological process. The sounds impinge on the listener‗s
ear. It is only when he takes these in that he can go further in the process of getting at the
meaning.
. Attending: The listener has to focus his attention on the .message. to the exclusion of
all other sounds that may be present in the immediate surroundings.
. Interpreting: The sounds have to be interpreted, that is, the listener tries to understand
the message that is being put across against the background of his own values, beliefs,
ideas, expectations, needs, experience and background — and, of course, taking into
account the speaker‗s viewpoint.
. Remembering: This involves storing the message for future reference.
. Evaluating: The listener makes a critical analysis of the information received, judging
whether the message makes sense while separating fact from opinion.
. Responding: The listener gives a verbal or nonverbal response, and takes action
accordingly.
Barriers to listening:
1. Distractions
a. Semantic - The listener is confused about the actual meaning of a word, as
the word has different meanings.
b. Physical - This occurs when, for eg., the air-conditioning system or
microphones fail; or there is noise in the surroundings; or, someone is
constantly tapping on the table with his fingers.
c. Mental - This occurs when the listener makes himself the central character
of his daydreams and forgets the speaker.
2. Faking attention or pretending to listen –
This usually happens when the message consists of material of a difficult or
uninteresting nature. The listener may not want to bother to understand the
message. Sometimes this may happen when he is critical of the speaker‗s looks,
style of speaking, or mannerisms.
3. Defensive listening –
This kind of listening takes place when the speaker‗s views challenge the listener‗s
beliefs.
4. Prejudice – The listener‗s bias, negative attitude, preconceived notions, fears, or
stress adversely affect listening.
5. Constant focus on self - A person‗s ego may also adversely affect his listening.
The Roman playwright, Terence, reveals this aspect of human nature when he
says: .My closest relation is myself. A person may believe that he knows
everything that the speaker is talking about and, therefore, does not need to listen.
6. Information overload - The listener may be exposed to too many words or points
and, therefore, be unable to take in everything. He should learn how to pick up the
important
ones, and discard the rest.
7. The thinking-speaking rate - The speaking rate is 125 – 150 words per minute,
whereas the thinking rate is 400 words per minute. So the listener‗s mind is
moving much faster than the speaker is able to speak. The extra, intervening time,
before the speaker arrives at his next point, is usually spent in shifting one‗s
mental focus, or in day dreaming.
8. Short attention span - The natural attention span for human beings is short. This is
not easy to rectify, except for making a special effort to concentrate and prolong
one‗s attention span.
Listening strategies:
1. Preparation for listening –
The environment must be made conducive to listening. Noise and disturbance can
be kept
out by closing doors, or using a soundproof room. Suitable arrangements for
microphones and stationery should be made in advance. Interruptions must be
prevented. By these means, the physical barriers can be eliminated, and the
listener can focus his attention on the speaker.
2. Background knowledge –
The listener should train himself to listen intelligently, bearing in mind the
speaker, the topic and the situation.
3. Re-organize the material in mind –
The listener should be able to recognize patterns used by the speaker, and should
be able to identify the main / central point, and supporting points; s/he should reorganize the material in his mind according to certain headings so as to facilitate
recall.
4. Focusing on the speaker‘s matter than manner –
The listener should not be prejudiced by the personal or behavioural traits of the
speaker or his style, but should focus on the content, intent, and argument of the
message.
5. Listening actively –
Listening actively also involves being considerate to the speaker and empathising
with him. By adopting an alert listening pose, the listener puts the speaker at his
ease and places him in a better position to formulate and express his ideas. The
listener should have a positive attitude towards a talk, believing that in every talk
there is always at least one point or idea that will be of value and special
significance to him.
6. Listen with complete concentration –
The listener should learn to differentiate between argument and evidence; idea and
example; fact and opinion. He should attempt to pick out and paraphrase the
important points while disregarding unimportant ones.
7. Interaction –
a. Do not interrupt - Allow the speaker to finish what he is saying before you
begin to talk.
b. Do not disturb the speaker by indulging in some undesirable form of
activity, like talking to the person next to you, looking at your watch, or
walking out, or appearing uninterested or distracted.
c. Do not contradict the speaker
d. Do not let your mind move on to anticipate what is going to be said next –
just listen carefully to what the speaker is actually saying. If you are busy
planning your replies, you are likely to miss important points, and make
irrelevant or stupid statements.
e. Adopt an open-minded attitude –
Be open to new ideas, ask questions, seeking clarification of meaning,
ideas, and thoughts; or to gather additional information, or to direct the
flow of the conversation.
f. Avoid passing comments or making remarks when the speaker is speaking
g. Do not let your mind indulge in some other activity
h. Only one person should speak at one time.
8. Patience –
Do not get restless or impatient. Be careful not to lose your temper.
9. Motivation –
The experience of listening is more rewarding if the listener is motivated and
interested. Confidence and trust in the speaker are necessary.
10. Provide positive feedback –
By maintaining eye contact, using proper facial expressions, nodding from time to
time, leaning forward, and so on, you put the speaker at his ease, encourage him
and thus enable him to give of his best.
11. Listen for vocal & no-verbal cues –
By noting the speaker‗s tone of voice or facial expressions, it is possible to get at
his meaning more effectively. Pay attention to what the speaker says as much as to
what he leaves unsaid.
12. Make good use of the time gap between speaking and thinking –
Spend this =extra‗ time reflecting on what the speaker is saying. You could even
jot down points or make brief notes on selected topics. Make a kind of mental
summary, and evaluate what is being said. You may anticipate what the speaker is
going to say next, but it is necessary to listen carefully to find out whether it is
exactly what you expected or whether there is some difference. If there is a
difference, it is important to consider what the difference is, and the reason for it.
13. Introspection –
The listener must honestly examine his existing listening habits, and consider
whether he can improve upon them.
14. Practicing listening skills –
Train yourself to use your listening skills every time you have occasion to listen.
Do not abandon the task of listening, especially if you find it difficult. Listening is
an act of the will as much as a matter of habit. It depends on mental conditioning.
Willingness to make an effort, therefore, matters.
15. Adopting to different communication events –
Effective listening includes the ability to adapt to several communication events,
involving intercultural communication situations. The listener must be aware of
factors like culture, gender, race, status, etc., and not allow them to adversely
affect his listening. In this connection, tolerance, patience, and empathy are
important.
Styles of listening:
1. Empathic listening –
In this case we empathize with the speaker, and understand things from her/his
point of view, allowing her/him the freedom to express her/his emotions.
2. Informational listening –
Here, the aim is to receive information. So the listener pays attention to the
content, and makes decisions regarding the taking of notes; s/he also watches
for related non-verbal cues, asks questions, and focuses on the replies. All this
helps her/ him to assimilate the information.
3. Evaluative listening –
We are exposed to a great deal of material intended to persuade us to accept
the speaker‗s point of view; we need to evaluate what we hear, and note only
certain points that are of interest or use to us.
4. Appreciative listening –
We use this form of listening when we listen to our favourite music or watch
an enjoyable television programme. In these instances, careful listening greatly
enhances pleasure and appreciation.
5. Critical listening –
This is when we listen critically and analytically, carefully considering the
topic of the argument, the intentions of the speaker, his omissions, his point of
view; his credibility and so on.
Business Ethics
What is a 'Business'?
A business is an organization or enterprising entity engaged in commercial, industrial or
professional activities. A company transacts business activities through the production of
a good, offering of a service or retailing of already manufactured products. A business
can be a for-profit entity or a nonprofit organization that operates to fulfill a charitable
mission.
The term business has different meaning depending on the context.::
1. The commercial activities of an individual or a group engaging in some type of
financial transaction. Eg.: bargain between two individuals. You are buying
something in exchange of money.
2. An organization that is formed to operate some type of service or commercial
activity.
a. For Profit organization. Eg: The organisation‘s sole purpose can be to earn
profit and can range from a sole proprietorship to a multinationals
publically traded cooperation.
b. Not-For-Profit business. Eg. Farming.
3. The type of commerce in which someone engages. For eg:
a. Nike is in sports apparel and equipment business.
b. General Motors is in automobile business.
What is Business Ethics?
Business ethics is the study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially
controversial issues, such as corporate governance, insider trading, bribery,
discrimination, corporate social responsibility and fiduciary responsibilities. Law often
guides business ethics, while other times business ethics provide a basic framework
that businesses may choose to follow to gain public acceptance.
Business Ethics:
The system of laws and guidelines by which business professionals and corporations
operate in a fair, legal, and moral fashion.
Business Ethics is a broad topic covering following:
1. Globalization
2. Executive Pay
3. Earnings Management
4. Political Contributions
5. Marketing practices
6. Bribery
7. Tax avoidance
8. Corporate governance
9. Fiduciary responsibilities
10. Corporate Social responsibility
11. Intellectual property
12. Insider trading
13. Unionization
14. Corruption
15. Discrimination
16. Health and Safety
17. Sales practices
18. Privacy
19. Human resource Management
The organization where ethics are followed, trust develops between employees and
management as well as between the public and cooperation.
Thus, Business ethics lead to a more productive workplace.
Importance of Business Ethics
Ethics concern an individual's moral judgements about right and wrong. Decisions taken within
an organisation may be made by individuals or groups, but whoever makes them will be
influenced by the culture of the company. The decision to behave ethically is a moral one;
employees must decide what they think is the right course of action. This may involve rejecting
the route that would lead to the biggest short-term profit.
Businesses around the world are designing and implementing business ethics programs to
address the legal, ethical, social responsibility, and environmental issues they face. By
addressing these issues in a systematic way, enterprises can improve their own business
performance, expand opportunities for growth, and contribute to the development of social
capital in their markets. They can realize specific business benefits, such as:
1. Enhanced reputations and good will
2. Reduced risks and costs
3. Protection from their own employees and agents
4. Stronger competitive positions
5. Expanded access to capital, credit, and foreign investment
6. Increased profits
7. Sustained long-term growth
8. International respect for enterprises and emerging markets Enterprises that
excel in these areas create a climate of excellence for their employees,
shareholders, and communities, and contribute to the economic wellbeing of
their countries.
Ethical behaviour and corporate social responsibility can bring significant benefits
to a business. For example, they may:
 attract customers to the firm's products, thereby boosting sales and profits
 make employees want to stay with the business, reduce labour turnover and
therefore increase productivity
 attract more employees wanting to work for the business, reduce recruitment costs
and enable the company to get the most talented employees
 attract investors and keep the company's share price high, thereby protecting the
business from takeover.
Unethical behaviour or a lack of corporate social responsibility may damage a firm's
reputation and make it less appealing to stakeholders. Profits could fall as a result.
Several factors play a role in the success of a company that are beyond the scope
of financial statements alone. Organizational culture, management philosophy and ethics
in business each have an impact on how well a business performs in the long term. No
matter the size, industry or level of profitability of an organization, business ethics are
one of the most important aspects of long-term success.
Ethics in Leadership
The management team sets the tone for how the entire company runs on a day-to-day
basis. When the prevailing management philosophy is based on ethical practices and
behavior, leaders within an organization can direct employees by example and guide
them in making decisions that are not only beneficial to them as individuals, but also to
the organization as a whole. Building on a foundation of ethical behavior helps create
long lasting positive effects for a company, including the ability to attract and retain
highly talented individuals and building and maintaining a positive reputation within the
community. Running a business in a ethical manner from the top down builds a stronger
bond between individuals on the management team, further creating stability within the
company.
Employee Ethics
When management is leading an organization in an ethical manner, employees follow in
those footsteps. Employees make better decisions in less time with business ethics as a
guiding principle; this increases productivity and overall employee morale. When
employees complete work in a way that is based on honesty and integrity, the whole
organization benefits. Employees who work for a corporation that demands a high
standard of business ethics in all facets of operations are more likely to perform their job
duties at a higher level and are also more inclined to stay loyal to that organization.
Business Ethics Benefits
The importance of business ethics reaches far beyond employee loyalty and morale or the
strength of a management team bond. As with all business initiatives, the ethical
operation of a company is directly related to profitability in both the short and long term.
The reputation of a business from the surrounding community, other businesses and
individual investors is paramount in determining whether a company is a worthwhile
investment. If a company's reputation is less than perfect based on the perception that it
does not operate ethically, investors are less inclined to buy stock or otherwise support its
operations.
With consistent ethical behavior comes increasingly positive public image, and there are
few other considerations as important to potential investors and current shareholders. To
retain a positive image, businesses must be committed to operating on an ethical
foundation as it relates to treatment of employees, respect to the surrounding
environment and fair market practices in terms of price and consumer treatment.
Personal integrity at the workplace
Integrity comes in many forms, but honesty and dependability are two traits that are
expected in most workplace situations. Without responsible behavior, distrust can make a
work environment tense and uncomfortable. A strong work ethic shows co-workers and
clients that you're reliable and take your responsibilities seriously. Polite communication,
respectable behavior and fiscal responsibility also help you stand out as a trustworthy
employee.
1. Work When You're on the Clock
Working diligently when you're on the clock is a clear example of workplace integrity.
Socializing, surfing the Internet, making personal phone calls, texting and frequent
snacking are activities that detract from work time. Saving those activities for break time
will show your boss, co-workers and customers that you work hard when you're on the
clock. The career website Calibrate Coaching recommends honoring your work hours by
not stealing time from your employer. Even if you don't actually clock in and out with a
time card, focusing on your work responsibilities while you're at your desk, work station
or production area will showcase your strong work habits.
2. Follow Company Policies
Abiding by company policies is a powerful way to demonstrate integrity. Cutting
corners and neglecting to follow workplace regulations can lead to mistakes, problems
and even dangerous situations. Your willingness to properly record financial transactions,
safely dispense of hazardous or toxic materials, follow company protocol for dealing with
clients, perform clean-up or set-up procedures and properly maintain equipment shows
others that you're not just looking for the easy way out. Establishing yourself as a
trustworthy worker who submits to company policies shows your boss and co-workers
that you'll faithfully carry out your duties.
3. Respect Co-workers and Build Trust
Respecting those you work with reveals your desire to create a healthy work
environment. Polite communication, appropriate interactions and respect for co-workers'
thoughts and ideas demonstrate your ability to look beyond your own interests to pursue
team-centered work goals. As you deal with co-workers honestly and respectfully, you
establish a level of trust with them. According to Amy Rees Anderson, a contributor to
Forbes magazine, those who trust you will spread the word of that trust to their
associates, and word of your character will spread like wildfire.
4. Exhibit Responsible Behavior
Integrity in the workplace often stems from moral and ethical behavior. Making sure
there's no reason to question your conduct is one of the best ways to prove that you are an
honest and dependable employee. Avoid using company products or equipment for
personal use and submit exact receipts for travel or meal reimbursements. Don't overpromise what you can't provide and strive to meet deadlines. Work productively and
cooperate during company meetings so you don't appear lazy or apathetic, and don't call
in sick if you aren't. By exhibiting responsible behavior, you don't give co-workers or
clients the opportunity to question your integrity.
Computer Ethics
The concept of computer ethics originated in 1950 with the publication of Nobert
Wiener,s book entitles ―The human use of human beings,.
Computer ethics involves a set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers.
The Ten Commandments are as follows:
 Do not use the computer in ways that may harm other people.
Explanation: This commandment says that it is unethical to use a computer to
harm another user. It is not limited to physical injury. It includes harming or
corrupting other users' data or files. The commandment states that it is wrong to
use a computer to steal someone's personal information. Manipulating or
destroying files of other users is ethically wrong. It is unethical to write programs,
which on execution lead to stealing, copying or gaining unauthorized access to
other users' data. Being involved in practices like hacking, spamming, phishing or
cyber bullying does not conform to computer ethics.
 Do not use computer technology to cause interference in other users' work.
Explanation: Computer software can be used in ways that disturb other users or
disrupt their work. Viruses, for example, are programs meant to harm useful
computer programs or interfere with the normal functioning of a computer.
Malicious software can disrupt the functioning of computers in more ways than
one. It may overload computer memory through excessive consumption of
computer resources, thus slowing its functioning. It may cause a computer to
function wrongly or even stop working. Using malicious software to attack a
computer is unethical.
 Do not spy on another person's computer data.
Explanation: We know it is wrong to read someone's personal letters. On the same
lines, it is wrong to read someone else's email messages or files. Obtaining data
from another person's private files is nothing less than breaking into someone's
room. Snooping around in another person's files or reading someone else's
personal messages is the invasion of his privacy. There are exceptions to this. For
example, spying is necessary and cannot be called unethical when it is done
against illegitimate use of computers. For example, intelligence agencies working
on cybercrime cases need to spy on the internet activity of suspects.
 Do not use computer technology to steal information.
Explanation: Stealing sensitive information or leaking confidential information is
as good as robbery. It is wrong to acquire personal information of employees from
an employee database or patient history from a hospital database or other such
information that is meant to be confidential. Similarly, breaking into a bank
account to collect information about the account or account holder is wrong.
Illegal electronic transfer of funds is a type of fraud. With the use of technology,
stealing of information is much easier. Computers can be used to store stolen
information.
 Do not contribute to the spread of misinformation using computer technology.
Explanation: Spread of information has become viral today, because of the
Internet. This also means that false news or rumors can spread speedily through
social networking sites or emails. Being involved in the circulation of incorrect
information is unethical. Mails and pop-ups are commonly used to spread the
wrong information or give false alerts with the only intent of selling products.
Mails from untrusted sources advertising certain products or spreading some hardto-believe information, are not uncommon. Direct or indirect involvement in the
circulation of false information is ethically wrong. Giving wrong information can
hurt other parties or organizations that are affected on that particular theme.
 Refrain from copying software or buying pirated copies. Pay for software
unless it is free.
Explanation: Like any other artistic or literary work, software is copyrighted. A
piece of code is the original work of the individual who created it. It is copyrighted
in his/her name. In case of a developer writing software for the organization she
works for, the organization holds the copyright for it. Copyright holds true unless
its creators announce it is not. Obtaining illegal copies of copyrighted software is
unethical. It is not easy to do such things and in the end it will just be copied
illegally.
 Do not use someone else's computer resources unless authorized to.
Explanation: Multi-user systems have user specific passwords. Breaking into some
other user's password, thus intruding her private space is unethical. It is not ethical
to hack passwords for gaining unauthorized access to a password-protected
computer system. Accessing data that you are not authorized to access or gaining
access to another user's computer without her permission is not ethical. Privacy
will always be applied to such resources and were not supposed to get exposed and
hack in such ways that is not yours.
 It is wrong to claim ownership on a work which is the output of someone else's
intellect.
Explanation: Programs developed by a software developer are her property. If he
is working with an organization, they are the organization's property. Copying
them and propagating them in one's own name is unethical. This applies to any
creative work, program or design. Establishing ownership on a work which is not
yours is ethically wrong. Originality of any software/programs are to be keep safe
and trying to claim ownership will cause a viral disputes.
 Before developing a software, think about the social impact it can have.
Explanation: Looking at the social consequences that a program can have,
describes a broader perspective of looking at technology. A computer software on
release, reaches millions. Software like video games and animations or educational
software can have a social impact on their users. When working on animation
films or designing video games, for example, it is the programmer's responsibility
to understand his target audience/users and the effect it may have on them. For
example, a computer game for kids should not have content that can influence
them negatively. Similarly, writing malicious software is ethically wrong. A
software developer/development firm should consider the influence their code can
have on the society at large.
 In using computers for communication, be respectful and courteous with the
fellow members.
Explanation: The communication etiquette we follow in the real world applies to
communication over computers as well. While communicating over the Internet,
one should treat others with respect. One should not intrude others' private space,
use abusive language, make false statements or pass irresponsible remarks about
others. One should be courteous while communicating over the web and should
respect others' time and resources. Also, one should be considerate with a novice
computer user.
Business Ethics and Media:
Care must also be taken when making statements to the media that information given is
correct and not misleading. Information which, if made public would be likely to have
material effect on the share price or about certain transactions such as mergers,
acquisitions or disposals or transactions with related parties is subject to specific rules.
Such matters should be referred to the relevant Regional General Counsel. Enquiries
from the media should be referred to company media relations experts and statements
should only be made by designated spokespersons.
Only authorised spokespersons are permitted to represent the company in media or
investor relations.
Social media and Business Ethics
Social media is an umbrella term used to describe social interaction through a suite of
technology based tools, many of which are internet based. This includes, but is not
limited to, internet forums,
Networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and GooglePlus, webcasts, and
blogs.
Social media exhibits unique characteristics when compared t traditional media forms.
Its speed and scope means that once content is publish edit is available instantaneously,
to a potentially global audience. Social media tools tend to be free or available at a very
low cost relative to other forms of media and do not require users to have much
technical knowledge. This allows larger numbers of individuals to access and publish
material than with traditional media forms.
Social media is usually interactive in a way that traditional media is not, so users can
comment on and edit published material, making it difficult to control content. Social
media blurs private/public boundaries when individuals
personalinformationandopinionsenterthepublicdomain.Theboundariesbetweenpersonala
ndworklifealsobecomeblurredascompaniesmakeuseofsocial media (originally designed
for personal use) for business purposes, and likewise employees access personalities
while at work. A 2011DLA Piper survey found social media is used for personal and
work related activities by 95% of employees.
These unique characteristics of social media pose ethical challenges for business, through
employees use of social media on behalf of the company, as well as their personal use.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to
sustainable development by delivering economics, social and environmental benefits for
all stakeholders.
CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and
implemented differs greatly.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to
sustainable development by delivering economic, socil and environmental benefits for all
stakeholders.
CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and
implemented differs greatly for each company and country. Moreover, CSR is a very
broad concept that addresses many and various topics such as human rights, corporate
governance, health and safety, environmental effects, working conditions and
contribution to economic development. Whatever the definition is, the purpose of CSR is
to drive change towards sustainability.
Examples of Corporate Social Responsibility in India
Tata Group
Tata Group in India has a range of CSR projects, most of which are community
improvement programs. For example, it is a leading provider of maternal and child health
services, family planning, and has provided 98 percent immunization in Jamshedpur. The
company also endorses sports as a way of life. It has established a football academy,
archery academy, and promotes sports among employees. It offers healthcare services all
over the country with programs like rural health development.
Tata Group also has an organized relief program in case of natural disasters, including
long-term treatment and rebuilding efforts. It did laudable work during the Gujarat
earthquakes and Orissa floods. It also supports education, with over 500 schools, and also
is a benefactor of the arts and culture. It has done abundant work in improving the
environment and local populations around its industries.
Aptech
Aptech a leading education player with a global presence that has played a broad and
continued role in encouraging and nurturing education throughout the country since its
inception. As a global player with complete solutions-providing capabilities, Aptech has
a long history of participating in community activities. It has, in association with leading
NGOs, provided computers at schools, education to the deprived, and training and
awareness-camps.
Infosys
Infosys is aggressively involved in a variety of community growth programs. In 1996, the
company created the Infosys Foundation as a not-for-profit trust to which it contributes
up to 1 percent of profits after tax every year. Moreover, the Education and Research
Department at Infosys also works with employee volunteers on community development
projects.
The management team at Infosys continues to set examples in the area of corporate
citizenship and has involved itself vigorously in key national bodies. They have taken
initiatives to work in the areas of research and education, community service, rural
outreach programs, employment, healthcare for the poor, education, arts and culture, and
welfare activities undertaken by the Infosys Foundation.
Mahindra & Mahindra
At Mahindra & Mahindra, The K. C. Mahindra Education Trust was established in 1953
with the purpose of promoting education. Its vision is to renovate the lives of people in
India through education and financial assistance across age groups and across income
strata. The K. C. Mahindra Education Trust undertakes a number of education plans,
which make a difference to the lives of worthy students. The Trust has provided more
than Rs. 7.5 crore in the form of grants, scholarships and loans. It promotes education
mostly by the way of scholarships. The Nanhi Kali (children) project has over 3,300
children under it and the company aims to increase the number to 10,000 in the next two
years by reaching out to the underprivileged children, especially in rural areas.

Business Communication
Semester I – Notes
Unit 1: Theory of Communication
Chapter I
Concept of Communication
The English word ‘communication’ has been derived from the Latin word, ‘Communicare’ which means
to impart or participate or to transmit. The word ‘Communicare’ is derived from the root ‘Communis’
which means to make common or to share.
Communication is 1) the activity or process of sharing or exchanging ideas, feelings, information,
experience between two or more persons; 2) an act or instance of transmitting; 3) the information
actually communicated by some means.
Definitions of communication:
1) The Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as “the action of conveying or exchanging
information and ideas.”
2) Peter Little defines communication as “the process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and or organizations so that an understanding response results.”
3) Allen Lui (Louis) defines communication as “ Communication is the sum of all the things one person
does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It
involves a systematic process of telling, listening, understanding and responding.”
4) Keith Davis defines communication as “Communication is the transfer of information and
understanding from one person to another.”
Business Communication:
William G. Scott defines business communication as “Administrative communication is a process which
involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of
eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals.”
The last definition covers 4 aspects of administrative communication, as follows:
1) The sender’s ability to transmit his own ideas accurately.
2) The receiver’s mental ability to get the same idea as were transmitted i.e. accurate replication.
3) The feedback or the receiver’s response.
4) Eliciting action which will help to achieve the goals.
The process of communication involves a series of stages:
1) An idea arises in the mind of the sender, which he wants to share.
2) The sender encodes the idea in the form of a ‘message’.
3) The sender chooses some medium / channel to put across the message.
4) The receiver receives the message.
5) The receiver decodes – absorbs, understands, interprets the message.
6) The receiver sends feedback or his response.
The components or elements of the communication process are as follows:
1) The sender or the communicator
2) The message
3) Encoding
4) The medium / channel
5) The receiver
6) Decoding
7) Feedback
Importance of feedback in the process of communicationEffective feedback, both positive and negative, is very helpful. Feedback is valuable information that will
be used to make important decisions.
After getting the meaning of the message‘, the receiver provides feedback‘ which he =encodes‘ in the
form of a response/reaction/reply to the message. Feedback plays an important part in the
communication process, because it is desired and expected by both the sender‘ and the receiver‘. The
sender‘ wants to know whether and how his =message‘ has been received, and the =receiver‘, either
consciously or unconsciously, usually provides a sign indicating that he has received the message.
It should be noted that feedback may be positive or negative. Positive feedback indicates to the sender
the fact that his message has been received, understood, and accepted; and that he can proceed to the
next point. Negative feedback tells the sender that his message has not been properly understood. It,
therefore, functions as a corrective, as it makes the =sender‘ realize the defects or flaws in his manner
of encoding. He will, therefore, have to encode the same message in a different way, so as to enable the
=receiver‘ to understand it.
Feedback may be immediate or delayed. In the case of interpersonal communication it is quick, as the
sender is able to observe the response/reaction (e.g. a smile, nod, frown etc.) when he is conveying the
message. He can also guess whether the =receiver‘ agrees or disagrees with him.
However, in the case of a letter, feedback may be delayed as the =receiver‘ will take time to reply.
Sometimes, feedback is obtained indirectly, by observing the subsequent change of behaviour on the
part of the =receiver‘.
Feedback is very important in business. It is important for the businessperson to know whether his/her
clients and customers are satisfied with the products and services, or whether s/he needs to make
changes. Feedback from employees is also necessary to improve the performance of an organization.
The diagrammatical representation of the communication process can be shown as follows:
How to achieve effective communication:
1) Communicate for a purpose
2) Compose message with care
3) Study the receiver
4) Select appropriate medium
5) Provide feedback
6) Act promptly on receiving feedback.
Benefits of effective communication:
1. Healthy relations
2. Better performance
3. High morale
4. Good image unity
5. Reaching final goals
6. Smooth functioning
7. Greater efficiency
8. Higher productivity
9. Effective decision-making
10. Co-operation & Co-ordination
` ` ` `` `
Students are suppose to prepare notes on their own.
Emergence of communication as a key concept in the corporate and global world.
Impact of technology enabled communication : Types – Internet, Blogs, E-mail, Moodle, Social
media (Facebook, twitter and Whatsapp advantages and disadvantages)
Sender

Channel / Medium

Receiver
Chapter II
Channels and Objectives of Communication
Formal Communication
Downward communication:
Needed For:
1) To get the work done.
2) To prepare the workforce for challenges
3) To tackle misinformation & suspicion arising out of it
4) To create a feeling of pride & confidence in the workforce I order to motivate it and to
boost its morale.
5) To transmit work ethics & the organization‘s culture.

Advantage	Disadvantage
Discipline	Lack of vision & arbitrary decision making can prove detrimental and harmful to the organization
Implementation of orders happen efficiently	Balance in sharing information is important so is indicious use of discretion
Tasks & positions can be well defined	Delay implementation of decisions
Clarity in the minds of employees about their responsibility, avoids confusion	Oral communication leads to information loss, distraction & lack of accountability
It helps in uniting different level of authority & brings in team spirit	Absence of feedback mechanistic can lead to frustration, lack of trust in authority & feel exploited

Upward communication:
Needed for:
1) To forward employee-feedback
2) To report on official matters
3) To give voice on the difficulties, grievances, complaints, dissatisfaction, work related
demands of employees
4) To invite suggestion, creativity & participation in problem solving
5) To create a sense of belonging through participation

Advantage	Disadvantage
Employees participation	Failure on the part of subordinates to take initiative & participate in the decision making
Trust , emotional bonding, understanding & cooperation between management & employees	Long line of authority, inability of the seniors to listen or to act, create barriers
Employees enthusiastic	Delays due to slow transmission, distortion of communication further hamper the process
Authority earns subordinates cooperation response to management‘s call	Employees failure to handle upwards communication

Requirements:
1) Chain should be start
2) Executives should be trained for excellent listening skills
3) The organizations atmosphere should be conducive
Vertical Communication:
While Decisions are finally taken by the top management, there is room for employee
feedback, communication, wherein the management interacts with employees, invites
their participation in decision making, creates mechanisms to address their concerns
without compromising on its measures of control is called vertical communication.
Horizontal / Lateral Communication:
Need for:
1) To exchange official information
2) To create understanding and team spirit among members
3) To solve difficulties
4) To seek and extend co-operation
5) To save time when quick decisions have to be made

Advantage	Disadvantage
Helps in clarifying doubts, taking quick decisions & eliminating mistrust	Ungoverned horizontal communication to leads to discipline
It brings about better coordination, builds team spirit and ensure faster implementation of decisions	Employees tend to waste precious time arguing and debating over issues and decisions

It also check the grapevine

Requirements:
1) Employee must learn to extend cooperation & work towards achieving goals
2) The authority should delegate responsibilities to subordinates in order to quicken the
pace of work.
3) Horizontal Communication needs to be monitored as its uncontrolled transmission can
invite problems for the organization.
Diagonal / Crosswise
Needs for:
1) Speeds up the flow of information
2) Creates healthy work relationships
3) Brings in proper co-ordination among different sections
4) Makes problem solving easy
5) Controls distortion & dilution of message because of direct, inter leave communication
Requirements:
1) Organizations atmosphere should be trust & transparency
2) Proper training or orientation should be given to employees to handle diagonal
communication

Advantage	Disadvantage
Speeds up the flow of information	It is likely to bypass the vertical chain of commands. This may create doubts in the minds of bypassed superiors
Creates healthy work relationships	It may be seen as interference
Brings in proper co-ordination among different sections	It may create doubts the superior‘s accountability & cooperation
Makes problem solving easy	Decisions thus taken may be resisted by the bypassed authority and could spoil the organization atmosphere
Controls distortion & dilution of message because of direct, inter leave communication

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Grapevine is the plant or creeper on which grapes grow. The grapevine may glow or
move in any direction with the support of its tendrils. In the some way, informal
communication can move in any direction with the support of informal groups.
How it is generated?
1) People need to share & agree on important opinions & attitudes to feel that they belong
to a group
2) People need to share their hopes & ambitions with superiors
3) People need to express emotions such as joy, anger, hostility etc.
4) Because of the rigidity of the formal, structure, the people feel the need to bypass
―official channels‖ for the sake of expediency in getting & giving information about
performance on the job.
The various types of grapevine are:
1) Chain
2) Single strand chain
3) Gossip Chain
4) Probability Chain
5) Cluster Chain
6) Wheel
7) Star

Advantage	Disadvantage
Grapevine communication travels fast, It has vast reach	Negative information half truths, personalized accounts of events, gross distortions are passed on by the render
The content because of its immense personal appeal are readily believable	It often leads to lack of motivation & moral of employees

Management must be aware of the power of grapevine, it can often fail the formal
system, it is difficult to trace its origin & is difficult to stop or control completely.
Guidelines for Management
1) Circulate information that is accurate & strengthen upward channels of communication
2) Delegate responsibility & entrust employees with specific responsibility to strengthen
trust between itself & employees
3) Invite suggestion farm grievance & redress cells, publishing house journals, make
effective use of bulletins, notice boards & employee welfare schemes
4) Either cut the grapevine with official communication or use grapevine itself to
circulate official information
Objective:
1) Information :
About organization, rules, regulations, culture, products, market, research, decisions,
vision, mission, goal etc.
2) Advice & Counseling:
Providing guidance is yet another objective of downward communication, seniors,
experts can help
employees with troubleshooting & crisis management, assist them in solving problems
that can forge bonds between employees & the managements.
3) Order & Instructions:
Orders & instruction means is giving directions to the employees. Any authoritative
communication issued by a superior in order to monitor / govern the behavior of a junior
is know as a ‗order‘ when an orders is split furthers to meet specific issue, it becomes
instruction.
4) Suggestion:
To suggest means to propose or put forward an idea for consideration both upward &
downward
communication. Employee participation & involvement encourage creative thinking &
exposure to employee‘s talent. Employees feel valued & develop a sense of belonging.
5) Persuasion:
Persuasion is an effort to influence the mind, belief system or attitude of a person to
bring about the desired change in his / her behavior.
4 Steps to take while persuading :
1) Identification
2) Preparing the Receiver
3) Deliver the message
4) Prompting action
Important Factor:
1) Persuader‘s personal character & reputation
2) Persuader must make suitable & effective emotional appeal
3) Persuader must logically present his ideas, views etc. There must be reasonable
presentation of the persuaded messages.
6) Education & Training:
At the management level, at the employee‘s level and at the level of outside public.
7) Motivation:
Motivation means that inner state that energizes activates or moves and which directs
or channels
behavior towards certain goal.
Setting up the right kind of justice & rewards system & inviting the employee‘s
participation in decision making can create the right kind of emotional environment
8) Raising the moral of Employees:
Consequences of high moral & low moral.
Management can boost the moral of its employees by giving basis infrastructural
support, creating systems that reward effort, strengthening its official channels of
communication, encouraging upward
Communication, controlling the grapevine & taking measures to earn the trust of
employees.
Certain strategies opted by MNCs to boost morale of the employees:
1. Keep employees feeling their work is more than just a job.
Everyone wants to feel that his or her work has a higher purpose. Sometimes,
though, that purpose gets lost in the day-to-day grind. One of the key ways that
Snagajob.com, an online job-search company, based in Glen Allen, Virginia,
inspires its 126 employees is by sharing "I Got a Job!" stories that show them the
value of their work. Circulated by email, the real-life stories come from grateful
job seekers who recently landed a new job through the company's website.
2. Take time to creatively celebrate accomplishments.
It's natural to focus on what's ahead rather than reflect on how much has been
achieved. Taking time to reflect, though, helps employees appreciate how much
they have done. All departments at Acuity, a financial-services company based in
Sheboygan, Wis., are asked each year to recognize their own work by providing a
list of significant accomplishments of their team. The lists are reviewed by Acuity
officers, who select the 100 most outstanding achievements for inclusion in a "Top
100 Accomplishments" list. The latest list was designed as a book, Acuity World
Records, with the help of Guinness World Records, and given to all 831
employees.
3. Grant time off to employees to pursue projects they are passionate about.
Personal projects can provide an energizing break from regular responsibilities and
can serve as a source of innovation for a company. Atlassian, a developer of
collaboration software based in Sydney, encourages creativity during its "FedEx
Day." During this event, all 62 employees can work on anything that excites them
-- as long as it is somewhat related to Atlassian products or processes, can be
completed in the allotted time, and is fun. Employees have from 2 p.m. on a
Thursday until 4 p.m. Friday, giving them roughly 24 hours to deliver a project
(thus the name, FedEx Day). Then at a presentation, participants show off the
results of their projects. From these ideas, Atlassian has adopted more than a
dozen projects, ranging from product upgrades to process improvements.
4. Mix up the company's usual way of doing things.
Departing from the customary routine of meetings and cubicle life can go a long
way toward building morale. The accounting firm Ehrhardt Keefe Steiner &
Hottman, based in Denver, uses the concept of neighborhoods to shake things up.
All 387 employees are organized into neighborhoods, based on the floors or
sections of floors in each office. These groups have regular get-togethers and
shape the contours of meetings. For example, during an all-employee meeting day,
as the firm staged a neighborhood basketball tournament, each group came up
with team names, homemade jerseys, mascots, and cheerleaders.
5. Don't forget to have fun.
For the online discounter FatWallet, based in Rockton, Ill., fun is a regular part of
the schedule. Its 55 employees are invited to play in a monthly Game Day, an inhouse competition with activities ranging from Trivial Pursuit to Wii bowling
matches. The company also offers quarterly "fun" rewards when staffers achieve
certain goals, such as hockey games, casino nights, or playdays at at amusement
parks. Team-building events have included a city scavenger hunt in Chicago and a
rooftop Cubs game.
6. Train employees to develop positive attitudes.
During the height of the recession in 2009, employee morale became a big issue
for 4Imprint, a maker of customized promotional products, based in Oshkosh,
Wis. The company's training team decided to try to boost morale by setting up
classes for the 419 employees to watch and discuss videos with inspiring themes
like Lance Armstrong's comeback from cancer and the friendly culture at
Southwest Airlines.
7. Offer time away from the office to do some good.
Another way to build employee morale and camaraderie is through community
service. Studer Group, a Gulf Breeze, Fla.-based management consulting firm,
gives its 114 employees four paid hours a month to volunteer for a charitable
initiative or organization of their choice. Departments also take on volunteer
projects as a group.
8. Free Yoga classes
9. Team-based commissions
10. Work/life balance is encouraged with flexible schedules.
11. on-site gym available to all employees
12. state-of-the-art office
13. extensive training programs
14. a profit-sharing plan
15. Unlimited vacation days
16. Allowing pets in the office
For example Google does the following things:
1. Google provides the surviving spouse or partner of a deceased employee 50% of
their salary for the next 10 years.
2. Googlers in San Francisco and Mountain View report being able to bring their pets
to work.
3. Employees in Mountain View, California, and New York City have an on-site
gym.
4. They can also enjoy beer and wine in the office on Fridays.
5. Googlers get free meals and snacks in the office, which one Glassdoor reviewer
called "varied and delicious." Reviewers called the food "healthy," "tasty," and
even "on par with any of the top restaurants in NYC."
6. Google offers a 50% 401k match up to $8,250.
7. New mothers get paid leave up to 22 weeks, while fathers and adoptive parents get
between seven and 12 weeks of paid leave. One senior software engineer wrote the
benefit "...helps create an understanding that any team member might go on leave
now and again, and that this is expected and normal and okay."
8. First year engineers get 15 days of paid time off — that jumps to 20 days after
three years and 25 days after five years. And anyone can take an unpaid three
month leave of absence.
9) Warning & Reprimand:
To warn is to inform a person of unpleasant consequences.
Management notices the misdemeanor and brings it to the notice of the concerned
employee----- Oral or Soft warning ----- Warning in writing or memo---- After 2 memos
are issued service of the employee is terminated.
Chapter III : Methods & Modes of Communication
Methods – Verbal & Non verbal
Media – Telephone, Fax, Computer, Internet.

Methods	Modes
Verbal	Non-verbal	Electronics
Oral	Written	Body language	Silence	Fax
Face-to-face	Letters	Facial expressions	Signs	Computers
Telephone	Memos	Gestures	Postures	Internet
Notices	Posters	Colours	E-mail
Circulars	Dress & grooming	Maps
Reports	Proxemics	Graphs & Charts

Selection of methods should be based on –
1. Speed 2. Accuracy 3. Circumstances 4. Confidence and safety 5. Expenses
6. Impression 7. Feedback
Oral Communication: Oral communication is communication by means of spoken
words.
Principles of oral communications:
1. Know your objective
2. Know your audience
3. Know your subject
4. Know how to use your voice
5. Know how to use body language
6. Know when to stop
Advantages:

1. Its direct & time saving	2. It saves money
3. It conveys the exact meaning of words	4. It provides immediate feedback
5. It is more persuasive in nature	6. On-the-spot additions, deletions and corrections are possible
7. Confidential messages can be communicated	8. It is informal and friendlier
9. Develop relations	10. Motivates the speaker.

Disadvantages:

1. It lacks legal validity	2. Possibility of misunderstanding
3. It lacks accountability	4. Problem of retention
5. The need for good speaking skills	6. Not always effective
7. Lacks planning	8. Diversion of subject matter

Face-to-face communication

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. Combination of verbal & non-verbal factors	1. Difficult to practice in large organizations
2. Immediate feedback possible	2. Not effective if the receiver does not pay attention
3. Modifications while delivering the message is possible	3. Not effective in large gatherings
4. Particularly suitable for discussions

Written communication: Written communication is the expression of language by
means of visible signs.

Advantages	Disadvantage
1. Reference	1. Time, trouble & expenses
2. Permanent record	2. Feedback is slow
3. Legal validity	3. Problem of storage
4. Aids memory & retention	4. Lacks friendliness
5. Accurate & organized	5. Unsuited to countries where illiteracy rate is high
6. Fixing responsibility	6. Problem of instant clarification
7. Wider reach	7. Problem of writers
8. Goodwill	8. Problem of communicating secret information
9. Less chances of misunderstanding
10. Suitable for lengthy messages
11. Corporate image

Non-verbal Communication:
Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us
spend about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts,
and ideas to others. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our
communication is of a non-verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body
posture and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear
our clothes or the silence we keep.
In person-to-person communications our messages are sent on two levels simultaneously.
If the nonverbal cues and the spoken message are incongruous, the flow of
communication is hindered. Right or wrong, the receiver of the communication tends to
base the intentions of the sender on the non- verbal cues he receives.
Categories and Features
G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:
Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone
of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.
Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through creative
expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.
Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal
flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.
Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or egobuilding symbols.
Our concern here will be with what Porter has called the physical method of non-verbal
communication.
Knowledge of non-verbal communication is important managers who serve as leaders
of organizational "teams," for at least two reasons:
 To function effectively as a team leader the manager must interact with the other
members successfully. Non-verbal cues, when interpreted correctly, provide him
with one means to do so.
 The team members project attitudes and feelings through non-verbal
communication. Some personal needs such as approval, growth, achievement, and
recognition may be met in effective teams. The extent to which these needs are
met is closely related to how perceptive the team leader and team members are to
non-verbal communication in themselves and in others on the team.
If the team members show a true awareness to non-verbal cues, the organization
will have a better chance to succeed, for it will be an open, honest, and confronting unit.
Argyle and his associates have been studying the features of nonverbal communication
that provide information to managers and their team members.
Non verbal communication is indirect, without words or without verbal messages. Non
verbal communication constitutes 45% of the impact of message in oral communication.
The major elements of non-verbal communication can be divided into body language
(Kinesics), vocal tone, space & proximics, dress & grooming etc.
1. Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication. The
superior in the organization generally maintains eye contact longer than the
subordinate. The direct stare of the sender of the message conveys candor and
openness. It elicits a feeling of trust. Downward glances are generally associated
with modesty. Eyes rolled upward are associated with fatigue.
2. Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey
information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are
monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these
expressions may be similar across cultures.
3. Gestures : One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a
hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While
some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others
are individually learned and idiosyncratic.
A gesture is an action of body , hand or head, which conveys a message. Eg: yes,
no, Namaste, wait.
a. Communicating information: eg: ‗V‘ sign, pointing finger etc.
b. Communicating information : eg: clapping indicates appreciation, fistclenching shows aggression, face touching shows anxiety
c. Supports speech
d. Expressing self image
4. Posture: The way we stand or sit, the position of the hand & head, basically how
we carry ourselves. Eg. Hunched shoulders show low confidence, in emergency a
person tends to sit on the edge of a chair. Posture can be used to determine a
participant‘s degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between
communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other
communicator. Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal
relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person‘s
left side is parallel to the other‘s right side, leads to favorable perception of
communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or a
decrease in a backwards lean also signify positive sentiment during
communication. Posture is understood through such indicators as direction of lean,
body orientation, arm position, and body openness.
5. Tactile Communication
Communication through touch is obviously non-verbal. Used properly it can
create a more direct message than dozens of words; used improperly it can build
barriers and cause mistrust. You can easily invade someone's space through this
type of communication. If it is used reciprocally, it indicates solidarity; if not used
reciprocally, it tends to indicate differences in status. Touch not only facilitates the
sending of the message, but the emotional impact of the message as well.
6. Dress & grooming : Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative
purpose. This man's clothes identify him as male and a police officer; his badges
and shoulder sleeve insignia give information about his job and rank. Elements
such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, odors, and clothing send
nonverbal messages during interaction.
7. Proxemics: Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical
space around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message
influences the way the message is interpreted.
The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures and different
settings within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into
four main categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space.
The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human
behavior regarding personal space. Hargie & Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such
territories:
1) Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associated with someone who has
exclusive use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the
owner‘s permission.
2) Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no ―right‖ to occupancy, but
people may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For example,
someone may sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved if someone
else sits there.
3) Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set
period, such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a
limited claim over that space, they often exceed that claim. For example, it was
found that people take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to
take that space.
4) Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For
example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk
around the group rather than disturb it.
Space can also be divided into :
a. Intimate distance
b. Personal distance
c. Social distance
d. Public distance
8. Paralanguage: Includes pitch, volume, intonation etc. The tone of voice, rate of
speech, pause, accent can not only communicate but alter the meaning
significantly. Researchers have found that the tone, pitch, quality of voice, and
rate of speaking convey emotions that can be accurately judged regardless of the
content of the message. The important thing to gain from this is that the voice is
important, not just as the conveyor of the message, but as a complement to the
message. As a communicator you should be sensitive to the influence of tone,
pitch, and quality of your voice on the interpretation of your message by the
receiver.
9. Silence
Silence can be a positive or negative influence in the communications process. It can
provide a link between messages or sever relationships. It can create tension and
uneasiness or create a peaceful situation. Silence can also be judgmental by indicating
favor or disfavor - agreement or disagreement.
For example, suppose a manager finds a couple of his staff members resting.
If he believes these staff members are basically lazy, the idleness conveys to him that
they are "goofing off" and should be given additional assignments.
If he believes these staff members are self-motivated and good workers, the idleness
conveys to him that they are taking a well-deserved "break."
If he is personally insecure, the idleness conveys to him that they are threatening his
authority.
10. Time
Time can be an indicator of status. How long will you give the staff member who wishes
to speak to you? How long will you make him wait to see you? Do you maintain a
schedule? Is your schedule such that your subordinates must arrange their schedules to
suit yours? In a healthy organization, the manager and his subordinates use time to
communicate their mutual respect to each other.
11. Visual & Auditory Signs & Signals: The word sign has been derived from the
latin word signum which means mark. Signs eg. Plus, minus, multiplication,
divisions, can be used in chemistry, maths, music, road signs etc. Auditory signs
includes door bell, college bell, ambulance siren etc.
12. Posters: Posters are combination of verbal & non-verbal factors, because they
consists of pictures as well as words. Posters have three parts namely :
e. Headline : This is short but catchy slogan
f. Illustration: This is the visual part consisting of pictures or photographs.
g. Copy : This is the written matter, which gives necessary details.
 like old communist poster hero
 key word - be inspired
 shirt and white tie
 looking up into the sky
 sharp clean holy preacher
 suit – businesslike
 angle of face - on a mission –
sun over flag
A new day dawning in America
13. Colours : Color is a form of non verbal communication. It is not a static energy
and its meaning can change from one day to the next with any individual - it all
depends on what energy they are expressing at that point in time. Every colour
represents something.
Color Meaning
Red
Red is the color of fire and blood, so it is associated with energy, war, danger, strength,
power, determination as well as passion, desire, and love.
Red is a very emotionally intense color. It enhances human metabolism, increases
respiration rate, and raises blood pressure. It has very high visibility, which is why stop
signs, stoplights, and fire equipment are usually painted red. In heraldry, red is used to
indicate courage. It is a color found in many national flags.
Red brings text and images to the foreground. Use it as an accent color to stimulate
people to make quick decisions; it is a perfect color for 'Buy Now' or 'Click Here' buttons
on Internet banners and websites. In advertising, red is often used to evoke erotic feelings
(red lips, red nails, red-light districts, 'Lady in Red', etc). Red is widely used to indicate
danger (high voltage signs, traffic lights). This color is also commonly associated with
energy, so you can use it when promoting energy drinks, games, cars, items related to
sports and high physical activity.
Light red represents joy, sexuality, passion, sensitivity, and love.
Pink signifies romance, love, and friendship. It denotes feminine qualities and
passiveness.
Dark red is associated with vigor, willpower, rage, anger, leadership, courage, longing,
malice, and wrath.
Brown suggests stability and denotes masculine qualities.
Reddish-brown is associated with harvest and fall.
Orange
Orange combines the energy of red and the happiness of yellow. It is associated with joy,
sunshine, and the tropics. Orange represents enthusiasm, fascination, happiness,
creativity, determination, attraction, success, encouragement, and stimulation.
To the human eye, orange is a very hot color, so it gives the sensation of heat.
Nevertheless, orange is not as aggressive as red. Orange increases oxygen supply to the
brain, produces an invigorating effect, and stimulates mental activity. It is highly
accepted among young people. As a citrus color, orange is associated with healthy food
and stimulates appetite. Orange is the color of fall and harvest. In heraldry, orange is
symbolic of strength and endurance.
Orange has very high visibility, so you can use it to catch attention and highlight the most
important elements of your design. Orange is very effective for promoting food products
and toys.
Dark orange can mean deceit and distrust.
Red-orange corresponds to desire, sexual passion, pleasure, domination, aggression, and
thirst for action.
Gold evokes the feeling of prestige. The meaning of gold is illumination, wisdom, and
wealth. Gold often symbolizes high quality.
Yellow
Yellow is the color of sunshine. It's associated with joy, happiness, intellect, and energy.
Yellow produces a warming effect, arouses cheerfulness, stimulates mental activity, and
generates muscle energy. Yellow is often associated with food. Bright, pure yellow is an
attention getter, which is the reason taxicabs are painted this color. When overused,
yellow may have a disturbing effect; it is known that babies cry more in yellow rooms.
Yellow is seen before other colors when placed against black; this combination is often
used to issue a warning. In heraldry, yellow indicates honor and loyalty. Later the
meaning of yellow was connected with cowardice.
Use yellow to evoke pleasant, cheerful feelings. You can choose yellow to promote
children's products and items related to leisure. Yellow is very effective for attracting
attention, so use it to highlight the most important elements of your design. Men usually
perceive yellow as a very lighthearted, 'childish' color, so it is not recommended to use
yellow when selling prestigious, expensive products to men – nobody will buy a yellow
business suit or a yellow Mercedes. Yellow is an unstable and spontaneous color, so
avoid using yellow if you want to suggest stability and safety. Light yellow tends to
disappear into white, so it usually needs a dark color to highlight it. Shades of yellow are
visually unappealing because they loose cheerfulness and become dingy.
Dull (dingy) yellow represents caution, decay, sickness, and jealousy.
Light yellow is associated with intellect, freshness, and joy.
Green
Green is the color of nature. It symbolizes growth, harmony, freshness, and fertility.
Green has strong emotional correspondence with safety. Dark green is also commonly
associated with money.
Green has great healing power. It is the most restful color for the human eye; it can
improve vision. Green suggests stability and endurance. Sometimes green denotes lack of
experience; for example, a 'greenhorn' is a novice. In heraldry, green indicates growth
and hope. Green, as opposed to red, means safety; it is the color of free passage in road
traffic.
Use green to indicate safety when advertising drugs and medical products. Green is
directly related to nature, so you can use it to promote 'green' products. Dull, darker green
is commonly associated with money, the financial world, banking, and Wall Street.
Dark green is associated with ambition, greed, and jealousy.
Yellow-green can indicate sickness, cowardice, discord, and jealousy.
Aqua is associated with emotional healing and protection.
Olive green is the traditional color of peace.
Blue
Blue is the color of the sky and sea. It is often associated with depth and stability. It
symbolizes trust, loyalty, wisdom, confidence, intelligence, faith, truth, and heaven.
Blue is considered beneficial to the mind and body. It slows human metabolism and
produces a calming effect. Blue is strongly associated with tranquility and calmness. In
heraldry, blue is used to symbolize piety and sincerity.
You can use blue to promote products and services related to cleanliness (water
purification filters, cleaning liquids, vodka), air and sky (airlines, airports, air
conditioners), water and sea (sea voyages, mineral water). As opposed to emotionally
warm colors like red, orange, and yellow; blue is linked to consciousness and intellect.
Use blue to suggest precision when promoting high-tech products.
Blue is a masculine color; according to studies, it is highly accepted among males. Dark
blue is associated with depth, expertise, and stability; it is a preferred color for corporate
America.
Avoid using blue when promoting food and cooking, because blue suppresses appetite.
When used together with warm colors like yellow or red, blue can create high-impact,
vibrant designs; for example, blue-yellow-red is a perfect color scheme for a superhero.
Light blue is associated with health, healing, tranquility, understanding, and softness.
Dark blue represents knowledge, power, integrity, and seriousness.
Purple
Purple combines the stability of blue and the energy of red. Purple is associated with
royalty. It symbolizes power, nobility, luxury, and ambition. It conveys wealth and
extravagance. Purple is associated with wisdom, dignity, independence, creativity,
mystery, and magic.
According to surveys, almost 75 percent of pre-adolescent children prefer purple to all
other colors. Purple is a very rare color in nature; some people consider it to be artificial.
Light purple is a good choice for a feminine design. You can use bright purple when
promoting children's products.
Light purple evokes romantic and nostalgic feelings.
Dark purple evokes gloom and sad feelings. It can cause frustration.
White
White is associated with light, goodness, innocence, purity, and virginity. It is considered
to be the color of perfection.
White means safety, purity, and cleanliness. As opposed to black, white usually has a
positive connotation. White can represent a successful beginning. In heraldry, white
depicts faith and purity.
In advertising, white is associated with coolness and cleanliness because it's the color of
snow. You can use white to suggest simplicity in high-tech products. White is an
appropriate color for charitable organizations; angels are usually imagined wearing white
clothes. White is associated with hospitals, doctors, and sterility, so you can use white to
suggest safety when promoting medical products. White is often associated with low
weight, low-fat food, and dairy products.
Black
Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, death, evil, and mystery.
Black is a mysterious color associated with fear and the unknown (black holes). It usually
has a negative connotation (blacklist, black humor, 'black death'). Black denotes strength
and authority; it is considered to be a very formal, elegant, and prestigious color (black
tie, black Mercedes). In heraldry, black is the symbol of grief.
Black gives the feeling of perspective and depth, but a black background diminishes
readability. A black suit or dress can make you look thinner. When designing for a
gallery of art or photography, you can use a black or gray background to make the other
colors stand out. Black contrasts well with bright colors. Combined with red or orange –
other very powerful colors – black gives a very aggressive color scheme.
eg. Traffic signals, Interpretation of different colours like red represents danger or
is considered as auspicious in wedding, white purity or peace etc.
Colours and Branding:
A brand‘s logo and visual identity will comprise a number of visual cues, such
as shapes, symbols, number, and words. But the number one visual component
that people remember most is colour. In fact, colour increases brand recognition
by up to 80%.
When it comes to branding, the power of color is both emotional and practical.
On an emotional level, color can affect how consumers feel when they look at a
brand, while on a practical level it can help a brand stand out in the crowd.
A number of studies on the relationship between color and branding
(here, here and here) reveal that up to 90% of snap judgments made about
products can be based on color alone, that colors influence how consumers view
the ‗personality‘ of the brand in question, and that the relationship between
brands and color hinges on the perceived appropriateness of the color being the
right ‗fit‘ for the particular brand.
Whether you're a designer or a business owner, it's helpful to know color
meanings and symbolism so you can make informed decisions. If you choose a
color meaning 'tranquility' for your extreme sports brand, you might be sending
the wrong message.
This is all well and good, but how do you go about choosing a color that
suits your brand? In this article, we will examine the use of color in branding
and give you an 11-color guide to help you choose the perfect one for your
brand.
01. Red – For Danger, Passion, Excitement & Energy
Meanings: Red has a number of different contextual associations and in
branding can deliver a highly visible punch. It has the ability to rev desire; and
not surprisingly when it is the color of fire, danger, and blood on one hand; and
love, sexuality and passion on the other. It is a bold, energetic and lively color
that can symbolize strength, confidence and power.
02. Orange – Fresh, Youthful, Creative & Adventurous
Meanings: Blending the warmth of red and the optimism of yellow, orange
communicates activity and energy. And of course it‘s hard not to go past orange
as the color of, well, oranges, and all their vitamin c byproducts, which
immediately makes orange feel fresh and healthy. Orange is not for everyone (it
was certainly the color of the decade in the 1970s) and can therefore tap into
associations of youthfulness, creativity and adventure.
03. Yellow – Optimistic, Cheerful, Playful & Happy
Meanings: Being the color of sunshine, yellow puts a smile on the dial. It is the
most visible color from a distance (which is why it‘s used for street signs) and
communicates cheerfulness, friendliness, joy and energy (who doesn‘t need
more yellow in their life?) It can also be associated with mental clarity and
intellect (again, who doesn‘t need more yellow?) However, yellow is also a
cautionary color used in life vests, police cordoning tape and hazardous areas.
04. Green – Natural, Vitality, Prestige & Wealth
Meanings: Green has two very common meanings that are quite paradoxical;
one being nature and the environment, and the other being finance and wealth.
When it comes to nature, green represents plant life and growth and is
consequently used to convey being ‗green‘ in the environmental, sustainable,
organic, natural sense of the word. And of course green is, as the saying goes,
‗the color of money‘ (US money, that is) and therefore associated with wealth
and stability.
05. Blue – Communicative, Trustworthy, Calming & Depressed
Meanings: Blue is the most universally preferred color, perhaps for its very
versatile qualities. It is a favorite color for companies that wish to convey
reliability, trustworthiness and communication (I‘m looking at you Facebook,
Twitter and Samsung) and for expressing the authority and officialdom of
organizations (oh, hey there Constable). It is also appreciated for it‘s calming
and harmonious qualities being associated with the sea and sky. However, being
associated with the emotional feeling of being ‗blue‘ it is also used to express
sadness or depression.
06. Purple – Royalty, Majesty, Spiritual & Mysterious
Meanings: Purple is a low arousal color. It is traditionally associated with
royalty, majesty or nobility as well as having a spiritual or mysterious quality.
Darker shades often represent luxury or opulence while lighter lavender shades
are quite feminine, sentimental and even nostalgic.
07. Brown – Organic, Wholesome, Simple & Honest
Meanings: Brown gets a lot of use in this era of organic and natural food,
beauty and products. Nature inspired it represents a feeling of wholesomeness,
orderliness, and being grounded. It is simple, strong, durable and honest and
may express that your brand has better things to care about than superfluous
color, when really… (mind trick!).
08. Pink – Feminine, Sentimental, Romantic & Exciting
Meanings: Pink has long been (stereotypically) associated with females and is
often viewed as being ‗girly.‘ However, like all colors, pink is quite diverse and
the level of intensity can impact its meaning. Pale pink, often marketed as the
official color of little girls, represents sweetness while dusty pink can be more
sentimental and light pink more romantic. At the other end of the scale, hot pink
indicates youthfulness, energy, fun and excitement. A soft pink is now often
referred to as 'millennial pink', for the generation's fondness for the blush tone.
Soft pink interiors, graphics and more are particularly popular with Generation
Y.
09. Black – Sophisticated, Formal, Luxurious & Sorrowful
Meanings: While color is more likely to increase brand recognition there‘s no
reason black—when used appropriately—can‘t be just as distinctive, memorable
and communicative of a brand‘s attributes. Black is to be taken seriously. It
represents power, luxury, sophistication and exclusivity on one hand; and death,
evil and mystery on the other. From formality to mourning to power, black is
bold, classic and not to be fooled with.
10. White – Purity, Simplicity, Innocence & Minimalism
Meanings: White represents simplicity, purity, innocence and perfection. And if
you had to identify one brand that has used white to convey its brand message to
perfection it would have to be Apple – white represents the simplicity of the
products in both their form and function. White also comes with a starkness or
sterility about it, which is often used be designers to convey a minimalist
aesthetic and clean, modern quality.
11. Multicolor – Variety
Meanings: Of course, what about mixing multiple colors in one logo, such as
Google, the Olympics and NBC? Diverse color generally indicates variety – be
it representative of people, countries, or offerings.
Color is an important consideration in your brand identity system. Colors
have a significant impact on people’s emotional state. They also have been
shown to impact people‘s ability to concentrate and learn. They have a wide
variety of specific mental associations. In fact, the effects are physiological,
psychological, and sociological.
For instance:
 Non-primary colors are more calming than primary colors.
 Blue is the most calming of the primary colors, followed closely by a
lighter red.
 Test takers score higher and weight lifters lift more in blue rooms.
 Blue text increases reading retention.
 Yellow evokes cheerfulness. Houses with yellow trim or flower gardens
sell faster.
 Reds and oranges encourage diners to eat quickly and leave. Red also
makes food more appealing and influences people to eat more. (It is no
coincidence that fast food restaurants almost always use these colors.)
 Pink enhances appetites and has been shown to calm prison inmates.
 Blue and black suppress appetites.
 Children prefer primary colors. (Notice that children‘s toys and books
often use these colors.)
 Forest green and burgundy appeals to the wealthiest 3 percent of
Americans and often raises the perceived price of an item.
 Orange is often used to make an expensive item seem less expensive.
 Red clothing can convey power.
 Red trim is used in bars and casinos because it can cause people to lose
track of time.
 White is typically associated with cool, clean and fresh.
 Red is often associated with Christmas and orange with Halloween and
Thanksgiving.
 Black clothes make people look thinner.
 Black is also associated with elegance and sophistication. It also seems
mysterious.
Colors also have a functional impact on readability, eye-strain, ability to
attract attention, ability to be seen at night, etc. This is important in choosing
colors for signing, website pages, prints ads, and other marketing media.
 The most visible color is yellow.
 The most legible of all color combinations are black on yellow and green
on white followed by red on white.
 It is no surprise that most traffic signs use these color combinations.
 Black on white is the easiest to read, on paper, and on computer screens.
 Hard colors (red, orange and yellow) are more visible and tend to make
objects look larger and closer. They are easier to focus upon. They create
excitement and cause people to over-estimate time.
 Soft colors (violet, blue and green) are less visible and tend to make
objects look smaller and further away. They aren‘t as easy to focus upon.
They have a calming effect, increase concentration, and cause people to
under-estimate time.
Usually, it is advantageous for a brand to consistently ―own‖ certain colors,
which provide an additional recognition cue.
14. Maps, Graphs & Charts:
h. Maps: A map is a drawing on paper that shows location, size & other
features of countries.
i. Line / Pie / Bar graph: present numerical or statistical data.
j. Charts : are used for mounting maps & graphs for better visual effects.
Modes of communication
1. Telephone – Telephone is a device that transmits speech at a distance through the
medium of electronic waves. In 1876 telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
Types of telephones:-
1. Landline or standard telephones
2. Cellular or Mobile phones: These are wireless devices that use radio waves to transmit
sounds. The two main cellular systems in operation are GSM – Global System for Mobile
Communications, and CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access.
3. Satellite phones: These are used in areas where communication links are absent or
destroyed.
4. Ethernet phones: There are digital phones which connect directly to a computer
network.
Telephone services: 1) Networking: – This works as a base for computer network and
fax transmission.
2) Teleconferencing and videoconferencing : - Sounds and video are transmitted via
phone lines or satellites, so that people in different places and different countries can be
communicate with one another at the same time.
Telephone etiquette:
1. Speak politely, precisely, clearly, confidently. Be positive & talk friendly with a
smile in voice.
2. Avoid shouting or speaking too low.
3. Listen carefully and if a part of message is not clear, politely ask for repetition.
4. While answering telephone calls, introduce yourself, your company & greet the
person.
5. Before making a call, one must be mentally prepared, if need be note down points.
6. Make sure you have delivered the message completely and is understood by the
receiving party.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. Time saving device.	1. Body language cannot be communicated.
2. Immediate feedback	2. It is sometimes not time saving
3. Legal validity	3. Call may be made at a wrong time.
4. Intercom facility
5. It provides a large range of services like

STD (Subscriber Trunk dialing), ISD (International Subscriber dialing), call waiting, call forwarding etc.

2. Fax: Fax is connected to telephone , can be used to send documents, photos, charts,
graphs, drawings, diagrams, certificates etc. It scans a printed page, converts it into
signals & transmit this signal over a telephone line to the receiving fax machine.
Drawbacks – cost, time, quality.
3. Computer –
1. Parts of computers – input, output, storage, processing devices.
2. What is software & hardware?
3. Uses of computer.
4. LAN, WAN, Internet.
5. Uses of Internet – Search, distant learning, E-commerce, videoconferencing, E-mail ,
social networking sites, cloud computing etc.
Chapter IV
Barriers to communication
The word barrier means an obstacle, a hindrance or simply a problem that comes in a way of
transmission of a message and blocks the process, either completely or partially.
Different types of barriers are as follows:
1. Physical or environmental barriers:
a. Noise - The noise created by external factors like traffic, playing of loud music,
trains and airplanes, or by crowds of people, affects our communication.
b. Time & distance - Time becomes a physical barrier when people have to
communicate across different time zones in different countries. The physical
distance between people who need to communicate can also cause problems
because it does not allow oral or face-to-face communication.
c. Defects in communication system – Mechanical problems and defects in
instruments of communication also create physical barriers, as in a faulty fax
machine or typewriter. Similarly, a computer that hangs, or a dead telephone line
can lead to non-transmission of messages. eg. No range in mobile, technical
problem in mike or speakers.
d. Wrong selection of medium – The sender selects the medium which is not
familiar to the receiver.
e. Physiological defects like stammering, hearing defects, mumbling while speaking
etc.
2. Language or Semantic barriers:
Language is the main medium of communication and words are its tools. Language
proves to be a barrier at diferent levels, such as semantic (meaning), syntactic (grammar),
phonological (pronunciation, intonation, pitch etc.) and finally linguistic (across
languages) Thus, language barriers can arise in different ways:
a. Jargon or unfamiliar terminology - There are some special terms or technical
words used by people belonging to a certain group or field of work such as
doctors, lawyers, computer software engineers or college students. They use
words which are their own, specialised jargon which cannot be understood by
anyone outside their group.
b. Difference in language – Unfamiliar language becomes a barrier when people do
not know each other‗s language. This barrier can be overcome by using a
common medium of communication, as in a classroom. Translation is also an
important way of overcoming this barrier.
c. Words are of two kinds: extensional and intentional words. Extensional words are
clear in their meaning and therefore do not create barriers – such as words like
boy,
chair, garden etc. Intentional words are words that describe and they can be
understood differently by different people, according to the meaning that a person
gives to the word. Thus good, bad, beautiful are intentional words, and a simple
sentence like she is a good girl. can create confusion because the meaning of
the word ‗good‘ is unclear.
d. Sometimes, the same word is used in different contexts, giving rise totally
different meanings. A word like =hard‗, for example can be used in different
ways: hard chair,
hard-hearted, hard drink, having a hard time – all these use the same word but the
meanings are different.
e. Barriers can be created when we come across words, which have the same sound
when pronounced, but which mean very different things. Examples: words like
fair and fare; bear and bare; council and counsel.
3. Psychological barriers:
Psyche means mind. Psychological barriers are created in the mind. Communication is a
mental activity and its aim is to create understanding. But the human mind is complex
and not all communication can result in understanding. There are several kinds of
psychological barriers which can come in the way of understanding.
(a) Emotions: Emotions are among the most common psychological barriers to
communication. The emotion may be connected to the communication received or it
may be present in the sender‗s or receiver‗s mind, even before the communication takes
place. In both cases, it acts as a barrier. Emotions can be positive, like happiness and joy,
or negative, like fear, anger, mistrust etc. Both positive and negative emotions act as
barriers,
if they are not kept in check.
(b) Prejudice: A prejudice is an opinion held by a person for which there is no rational
basis or valid reason. It can be against something or someone, or in favour of it, but it
becomes a barrier to a meaningful communication. Prejudices are based on ignorance and
lack of
information, e.g., prejudices about certain communities or groups of people.
(c) Halo effect: Sometimes our reactions to people are not balanced or objective; they are
of an extreme nature. Either we like a person so much that we can find no shortcomings
in her/him, or we dislike someone so much that we can see nothing good in her/him. In
both cases, we commit errors of judgment and fail to understand the person.
(d) Self-image or different perceptions: Every person has in her/his mind a certain image
of herself/himself. S/he thinks of herself/himself in a certain way. This is their perception
of themselves, their self-image. One‗s self-image is the product of one‗s heredity, one‗s
environment and one‗s experiences, and thus every person‗s self-image is unique and
different from the others. Self-image can create a barrier because we accept
communication
which is compatible with our self-image. We avoid or reject communication, which goes
against our perception of ourselves.
(e) Closed Mind: A closed mind is one which refuses to accept an idea or opinion on a
subject, because it is different from his idea. Such persons form their opinion on a
subject, and then refuse to listen to anyone who has something different to say about it. A
closed mind may be the result of some past experience or just habit. It is very difficult to
remove this psychological barrier.
(f) Status: Status refers to rank or position. It could be economic, social or professional
status. In any organisation, hierarchy creates differences in rank, and this is a normal
situation. Thus, status by itself does not cause barriers; but when a person becomes too
conscious of his status, whether high or low, then status becomes a barrier. For instance,
in a business organisation, a senior executive who is unduly conscious of his seniority
will not communicate properly with his juniors, and will refrain from giving them the
required
information. Similarly, if a junior is acutely conscious of his junior status, he will avoid
communicating with his seniors, even when it is necessary
(g) Inattentiveness and Impatience: Sometimes the receiver may not pay attention to the
sender‗s message, or he may be too impatient to hear the message fully and properly.
Such barriers are common in oral communication.
Overcoming psychological barriers:
1. Adopt flexible and open-minded attitude
2. Training of listening skills
3. Exposure to different environment, views will help to broaden outlook
4. Listening with empathy helps in making oneself more adapting to other‘s perceptions.
4. Cross-cultural barriers: Mary Allen Guffey defines communication as ,‖the complex
system of values, traits, morals and customs shared by a society.‖
Cultural diversity within a country, and cultural differences between people from
different countries, are a major cause of barriers. This is because people are conditioned
by their cultures, and they develop certain habits of working, communicating, eating,
dressing etc. according to their cultural conditioning. They find it difficult to get through
to people who come from an alien culture, and who have different habits. A simple thing
like a greeting to
welcome a person is vastly different in India from a greeting in, for example, an Arab
country, or in Japan. Food and dress habits of a different culture can make a person
uncomfortable. Concepts of space and time are also different across cultures; for
example,
Indians do not mind sitting close to each other and sharing space in offices or in public
places. However, a European would not be able to tolerate such intrusive behaviour.
Similarly, people who come from a culture where time is very valuable will be impatient
with those who come from a culture with an easygoing attitude towards time, where
everything is done in a slow, unhurried way.
a. Cultural diversity
b. Time
c. Space
d. Food
e. Manners
f. Decision making
Overcoming Barriers :
Barriers disrupt communication and interfere with understanding. They must be
overcome if communication has to be effective.
Physical barriers are comparatively easier to overcome. The use of loudspeakers and
microphones can remove the barriers of noise and distance in crowded places like railway
stations. Traffic signals and non-verbal gestures of the traffic policeman remove physical
barriers on the roads. Technological advancement has
helped in reducing the communication gap arising due to time and
distance .It is possible to make an alternative arrangement, should
the technological instruments fail. A back-up plan helps in tidying
over any snag.
Language or Semantic Barriers can be overcome if the sender and the receiver choose
a language which both of them understand very well. Help from a translator or an
interpreter also helps in overcoming the language barrier. Exposure to the target
language and training oneself in the acquisition of skills of the given language too help in
overcoming the language barrier. Language barriers can be avoided by careful study and
accurate use of language. Clarity should be the main objective when using
language. Jargon should be avoided.
Psychological barriers, as also cross-cultural barriers are difficult to overcome, as
they are difficult to identify and even more difficult to address. Even these can be
avoided or reduced by adopting a flexible and open-minded attitude. The ultimate aim is
to build bridges of understanding between people – that is the main aim of
communication. Training oneself to listen to different views , exposing oneself to
different environments help in broadening one‗s outlook and cultivating tolerance to
multiple views. Teaching oneself to listen with empathy helps in making oneself more
open to others ‗perceptions.
While dealing with psychological or cross-cultural barriers the
sender should make it a point to–
(i) Use language that is politically neutral and correct.
(ii) Present views in simple and objective manner
(iii) Focus on the objective of communication
Chapter V
Listening
Importance of listening
1. Listening is the first means of acquiring information
2. Listening is the first means of learning new language
3. Helps to solve problems
4. Helps in framing plans and policies
5. Helps to share information
6. Helps in decision-making
7. Helps to know organization
8. Develops better relations
9. Provides encouragement
Nature of listening process:
Listening is such a routine activity that most people do not even realize that they are poor
listeners, and are, therefore, in need of developing their listening skills. Others may feel
that listening is a very difficult task, perhaps, next to impossible to achieve. But the truth
is that good listening habits can be cultivated, and with practice, much can be achieved.
Understanding the complex process of listening, itself, may help people become good
listeners. Listening involves the following inter-related steps in sequential order:
Receiving-----Attending-----Interpreting-----Remembering-----Evaluating-----Responding
. Receiving: This is a kind of physiological process. The sounds impinge on the listener‗s
ear. It is only when he takes these in that he can go further in the process of getting at the
meaning.
. Attending: The listener has to focus his attention on the .message. to the exclusion of
all other sounds that may be present in the immediate surroundings.
. Interpreting: The sounds have to be interpreted, that is, the listener tries to understand
the message that is being put across against the background of his own values, beliefs,
ideas, expectations, needs, experience and background — and, of course, taking into
account the speaker‗s viewpoint.
. Remembering: This involves storing the message for future reference.
. Evaluating: The listener makes a critical analysis of the information received, judging
whether the message makes sense while separating fact from opinion.
. Responding: The listener gives a verbal or nonverbal response, and takes action
accordingly.
Barriers to listening:
1. Distractions
a. Semantic - The listener is confused about the actual meaning of a word, as
the word has different meanings.
b. Physical - This occurs when, for eg., the air-conditioning system or
microphones fail; or there is noise in the surroundings; or, someone is
constantly tapping on the table with his fingers.
c. Mental - This occurs when the listener makes himself the central character
of his daydreams and forgets the speaker.
2. Faking attention or pretending to listen –
This usually happens when the message consists of material of a difficult or
uninteresting nature. The listener may not want to bother to understand the
message. Sometimes this may happen when he is critical of the speaker‗s looks,
style of speaking, or mannerisms.
3. Defensive listening –
This kind of listening takes place when the speaker‗s views challenge the listener‗s
beliefs.
4. Prejudice – The listener‗s bias, negative attitude, preconceived notions, fears, or
stress adversely affect listening.
5. Constant focus on self - A person‗s ego may also adversely affect his listening.
The Roman playwright, Terence, reveals this aspect of human nature when he
says: .My closest relation is myself. A person may believe that he knows
everything that the speaker is talking about and, therefore, does not need to listen.
6. Information overload - The listener may be exposed to too many words or points
and, therefore, be unable to take in everything. He should learn how to pick up the
important
ones, and discard the rest.
7. The thinking-speaking rate - The speaking rate is 125 – 150 words per minute,
whereas the thinking rate is 400 words per minute. So the listener‗s mind is
moving much faster than the speaker is able to speak. The extra, intervening time,
before the speaker arrives at his next point, is usually spent in shifting one‗s
mental focus, or in day dreaming.
8. Short attention span - The natural attention span for human beings is short. This is
not easy to rectify, except for making a special effort to concentrate and prolong
one‗s attention span.
Listening strategies:
1. Preparation for listening –
The environment must be made conducive to listening. Noise and disturbance can
be kept
out by closing doors, or using a soundproof room. Suitable arrangements for
microphones and stationery should be made in advance. Interruptions must be
prevented. By these means, the physical barriers can be eliminated, and the
listener can focus his attention on the speaker.
2. Background knowledge –
The listener should train himself to listen intelligently, bearing in mind the
speaker, the topic and the situation.
3. Re-organize the material in mind –
The listener should be able to recognize patterns used by the speaker, and should
be able to identify the main / central point, and supporting points; s/he should reorganize the material in his mind according to certain headings so as to facilitate
recall.
4. Focusing on the speaker‘s matter than manner –
The listener should not be prejudiced by the personal or behavioural traits of the
speaker or his style, but should focus on the content, intent, and argument of the
message.
5. Listening actively –
Listening actively also involves being considerate to the speaker and empathising
with him. By adopting an alert listening pose, the listener puts the speaker at his
ease and places him in a better position to formulate and express his ideas. The
listener should have a positive attitude towards a talk, believing that in every talk
there is always at least one point or idea that will be of value and special
significance to him.
6. Listen with complete concentration –
The listener should learn to differentiate between argument and evidence; idea and
example; fact and opinion. He should attempt to pick out and paraphrase the
important points while disregarding unimportant ones.
7. Interaction –
a. Do not interrupt - Allow the speaker to finish what he is saying before you
begin to talk.
b. Do not disturb the speaker by indulging in some undesirable form of
activity, like talking to the person next to you, looking at your watch, or
walking out, or appearing uninterested or distracted.
c. Do not contradict the speaker
d. Do not let your mind move on to anticipate what is going to be said next –
just listen carefully to what the speaker is actually saying. If you are busy
planning your replies, you are likely to miss important points, and make
irrelevant or stupid statements.
e. Adopt an open-minded attitude –
Be open to new ideas, ask questions, seeking clarification of meaning,
ideas, and thoughts; or to gather additional information, or to direct the
flow of the conversation.
f. Avoid passing comments or making remarks when the speaker is speaking
g. Do not let your mind indulge in some other activity
h. Only one person should speak at one time.
8. Patience –
Do not get restless or impatient. Be careful not to lose your temper.
9. Motivation –
The experience of listening is more rewarding if the listener is motivated and
interested. Confidence and trust in the speaker are necessary.
10. Provide positive feedback –
By maintaining eye contact, using proper facial expressions, nodding from time to
time, leaning forward, and so on, you put the speaker at his ease, encourage him
and thus enable him to give of his best.
11. Listen for vocal & no-verbal cues –
By noting the speaker‗s tone of voice or facial expressions, it is possible to get at
his meaning more effectively. Pay attention to what the speaker says as much as to
what he leaves unsaid.
12. Make good use of the time gap between speaking and thinking –
Spend this =extra‗ time reflecting on what the speaker is saying. You could even
jot down points or make brief notes on selected topics. Make a kind of mental
summary, and evaluate what is being said. You may anticipate what the speaker is
going to say next, but it is necessary to listen carefully to find out whether it is
exactly what you expected or whether there is some difference. If there is a
difference, it is important to consider what the difference is, and the reason for it.
13. Introspection –
The listener must honestly examine his existing listening habits, and consider
whether he can improve upon them.
14. Practicing listening skills –
Train yourself to use your listening skills every time you have occasion to listen.
Do not abandon the task of listening, especially if you find it difficult. Listening is
an act of the will as much as a matter of habit. It depends on mental conditioning.
Willingness to make an effort, therefore, matters.
15. Adopting to different communication events –
Effective listening includes the ability to adapt to several communication events,
involving intercultural communication situations. The listener must be aware of
factors like culture, gender, race, status, etc., and not allow them to adversely
affect his listening. In this connection, tolerance, patience, and empathy are
important.
Styles of listening:
1. Empathic listening –
In this case we empathize with the speaker, and understand things from her/his
point of view, allowing her/him the freedom to express her/his emotions.
2. Informational listening –
Here, the aim is to receive information. So the listener pays attention to the
content, and makes decisions regarding the taking of notes; s/he also watches
for related non-verbal cues, asks questions, and focuses on the replies. All this
helps her/ him to assimilate the information.
3. Evaluative listening –
We are exposed to a great deal of material intended to persuade us to accept
the speaker‗s point of view; we need to evaluate what we hear, and note only
certain points that are of interest or use to us.
4. Appreciative listening –
We use this form of listening when we listen to our favourite music or watch
an enjoyable television programme. In these instances, careful listening greatly
enhances pleasure and appreciation.
5. Critical listening –
This is when we listen critically and analytically, carefully considering the
topic of the argument, the intentions of the speaker, his omissions, his point of
view; his credibility and so on.
Business Ethics
What is a 'Business'?
A business is an organization or enterprising entity engaged in commercial, industrial or
professional activities. A company transacts business activities through the production of
a good, offering of a service or retailing of already manufactured products. A business
can be a for-profit entity or a nonprofit organization that operates to fulfill a charitable
mission.
The term business has different meaning depending on the context.::
1. The commercial activities of an individual or a group engaging in some type of
financial transaction. Eg.: bargain between two individuals. You are buying
something in exchange of money.
2. An organization that is formed to operate some type of service or commercial
activity.
a. For Profit organization. Eg: The organisation‘s sole purpose can be to earn
profit and can range from a sole proprietorship to a multinationals
publically traded cooperation.
b. Not-For-Profit business. Eg. Farming.
3. The type of commerce in which someone engages. For eg:
a. Nike is in sports apparel and equipment business.
b. General Motors is in automobile business.
What is Business Ethics?
Business ethics is the study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially
controversial issues, such as corporate governance, insider trading, bribery,
discrimination, corporate social responsibility and fiduciary responsibilities. Law often
guides business ethics, while other times business ethics provide a basic framework
that businesses may choose to follow to gain public acceptance.
Business Ethics:
The system of laws and guidelines by which business professionals and corporations
operate in a fair, legal, and moral fashion.
Business Ethics is a broad topic covering following:
1. Globalization
2. Executive Pay
3. Earnings Management
4. Political Contributions
5. Marketing practices
6. Bribery
7. Tax avoidance
8. Corporate governance
9. Fiduciary responsibilities
10. Corporate Social responsibility
11. Intellectual property
12. Insider trading
13. Unionization
14. Corruption
15. Discrimination
16. Health and Safety
17. Sales practices
18. Privacy
19. Human resource Management
The organization where ethics are followed, trust develops between employees and
management as well as between the public and cooperation.
Thus, Business ethics lead to a more productive workplace.
Importance of Business Ethics
Ethics concern an individual's moral judgements about right and wrong. Decisions taken within
an organisation may be made by individuals or groups, but whoever makes them will be
influenced by the culture of the company. The decision to behave ethically is a moral one;
employees must decide what they think is the right course of action. This may involve rejecting
the route that would lead to the biggest short-term profit.
Businesses around the world are designing and implementing business ethics programs to
address the legal, ethical, social responsibility, and environmental issues they face. By
addressing these issues in a systematic way, enterprises can improve their own business
performance, expand opportunities for growth, and contribute to the development of social
capital in their markets. They can realize specific business benefits, such as:
1. Enhanced reputations and good will
2. Reduced risks and costs
3. Protection from their own employees and agents
4. Stronger competitive positions
5. Expanded access to capital, credit, and foreign investment
6. Increased profits
7. Sustained long-term growth
8. International respect for enterprises and emerging markets Enterprises that
excel in these areas create a climate of excellence for their employees,
shareholders, and communities, and contribute to the economic wellbeing of
their countries.
Ethical behaviour and corporate social responsibility can bring significant benefits
to a business. For example, they may:
 attract customers to the firm's products, thereby boosting sales and profits
 make employees want to stay with the business, reduce labour turnover and
therefore increase productivity
 attract more employees wanting to work for the business, reduce recruitment costs
and enable the company to get the most talented employees
 attract investors and keep the company's share price high, thereby protecting the
business from takeover.
Unethical behaviour or a lack of corporate social responsibility may damage a firm's
reputation and make it less appealing to stakeholders. Profits could fall as a result.
Several factors play a role in the success of a company that are beyond the scope
of financial statements alone. Organizational culture, management philosophy and ethics
in business each have an impact on how well a business performs in the long term. No
matter the size, industry or level of profitability of an organization, business ethics are
one of the most important aspects of long-term success.
Ethics in Leadership
The management team sets the tone for how the entire company runs on a day-to-day
basis. When the prevailing management philosophy is based on ethical practices and
behavior, leaders within an organization can direct employees by example and guide
them in making decisions that are not only beneficial to them as individuals, but also to
the organization as a whole. Building on a foundation of ethical behavior helps create
long lasting positive effects for a company, including the ability to attract and retain
highly talented individuals and building and maintaining a positive reputation within the
community. Running a business in a ethical manner from the top down builds a stronger
bond between individuals on the management team, further creating stability within the
company.
Employee Ethics
When management is leading an organization in an ethical manner, employees follow in
those footsteps. Employees make better decisions in less time with business ethics as a
guiding principle; this increases productivity and overall employee morale. When
employees complete work in a way that is based on honesty and integrity, the whole
organization benefits. Employees who work for a corporation that demands a high
standard of business ethics in all facets of operations are more likely to perform their job
duties at a higher level and are also more inclined to stay loyal to that organization.
Business Ethics Benefits
The importance of business ethics reaches far beyond employee loyalty and morale or the
strength of a management team bond. As with all business initiatives, the ethical
operation of a company is directly related to profitability in both the short and long term.
The reputation of a business from the surrounding community, other businesses and
individual investors is paramount in determining whether a company is a worthwhile
investment. If a company's reputation is less than perfect based on the perception that it
does not operate ethically, investors are less inclined to buy stock or otherwise support its
operations.
With consistent ethical behavior comes increasingly positive public image, and there are
few other considerations as important to potential investors and current shareholders. To
retain a positive image, businesses must be committed to operating on an ethical
foundation as it relates to treatment of employees, respect to the surrounding
environment and fair market practices in terms of price and consumer treatment.
Personal integrity at the workplace
Integrity comes in many forms, but honesty and dependability are two traits that are
expected in most workplace situations. Without responsible behavior, distrust can make a
work environment tense and uncomfortable. A strong work ethic shows co-workers and
clients that you're reliable and take your responsibilities seriously. Polite communication,
respectable behavior and fiscal responsibility also help you stand out as a trustworthy
employee.
1. Work When You're on the Clock
Working diligently when you're on the clock is a clear example of workplace integrity.
Socializing, surfing the Internet, making personal phone calls, texting and frequent
snacking are activities that detract from work time. Saving those activities for break time
will show your boss, co-workers and customers that you work hard when you're on the
clock. The career website Calibrate Coaching recommends honoring your work hours by
not stealing time from your employer. Even if you don't actually clock in and out with a
time card, focusing on your work responsibilities while you're at your desk, work station
or production area will showcase your strong work habits.
2. Follow Company Policies
Abiding by company policies is a powerful way to demonstrate integrity. Cutting
corners and neglecting to follow workplace regulations can lead to mistakes, problems
and even dangerous situations. Your willingness to properly record financial transactions,
safely dispense of hazardous or toxic materials, follow company protocol for dealing with
clients, perform clean-up or set-up procedures and properly maintain equipment shows
others that you're not just looking for the easy way out. Establishing yourself as a
trustworthy worker who submits to company policies shows your boss and co-workers
that you'll faithfully carry out your duties.
3. Respect Co-workers and Build Trust
Respecting those you work with reveals your desire to create a healthy work
environment. Polite communication, appropriate interactions and respect for co-workers'
thoughts and ideas demonstrate your ability to look beyond your own interests to pursue
team-centered work goals. As you deal with co-workers honestly and respectfully, you
establish a level of trust with them. According to Amy Rees Anderson, a contributor to
Forbes magazine, those who trust you will spread the word of that trust to their
associates, and word of your character will spread like wildfire.
4. Exhibit Responsible Behavior
Integrity in the workplace often stems from moral and ethical behavior. Making sure
there's no reason to question your conduct is one of the best ways to prove that you are an
honest and dependable employee. Avoid using company products or equipment for
personal use and submit exact receipts for travel or meal reimbursements. Don't overpromise what you can't provide and strive to meet deadlines. Work productively and
cooperate during company meetings so you don't appear lazy or apathetic, and don't call
in sick if you aren't. By exhibiting responsible behavior, you don't give co-workers or
clients the opportunity to question your integrity.
Computer Ethics
The concept of computer ethics originated in 1950 with the publication of Nobert
Wiener,s book entitles ―The human use of human beings,.
Computer ethics involves a set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers.
The Ten Commandments are as follows:
 Do not use the computer in ways that may harm other people.
Explanation: This commandment says that it is unethical to use a computer to
harm another user. It is not limited to physical injury. It includes harming or
corrupting other users' data or files. The commandment states that it is wrong to
use a computer to steal someone's personal information. Manipulating or
destroying files of other users is ethically wrong. It is unethical to write programs,
which on execution lead to stealing, copying or gaining unauthorized access to
other users' data. Being involved in practices like hacking, spamming, phishing or
cyber bullying does not conform to computer ethics.
 Do not use computer technology to cause interference in other users' work.
Explanation: Computer software can be used in ways that disturb other users or
disrupt their work. Viruses, for example, are programs meant to harm useful
computer programs or interfere with the normal functioning of a computer.
Malicious software can disrupt the functioning of computers in more ways than
one. It may overload computer memory through excessive consumption of
computer resources, thus slowing its functioning. It may cause a computer to
function wrongly or even stop working. Using malicious software to attack a
computer is unethical.
 Do not spy on another person's computer data.
Explanation: We know it is wrong to read someone's personal letters. On the same
lines, it is wrong to read someone else's email messages or files. Obtaining data
from another person's private files is nothing less than breaking into someone's
room. Snooping around in another person's files or reading someone else's
personal messages is the invasion of his privacy. There are exceptions to this. For
example, spying is necessary and cannot be called unethical when it is done
against illegitimate use of computers. For example, intelligence agencies working
on cybercrime cases need to spy on the internet activity of suspects.
 Do not use computer technology to steal information.
Explanation: Stealing sensitive information or leaking confidential information is
as good as robbery. It is wrong to acquire personal information of employees from
an employee database or patient history from a hospital database or other such
information that is meant to be confidential. Similarly, breaking into a bank
account to collect information about the account or account holder is wrong.
Illegal electronic transfer of funds is a type of fraud. With the use of technology,
stealing of information is much easier. Computers can be used to store stolen
information.
 Do not contribute to the spread of misinformation using computer technology.
Explanation: Spread of information has become viral today, because of the
Internet. This also means that false news or rumors can spread speedily through
social networking sites or emails. Being involved in the circulation of incorrect
information is unethical. Mails and pop-ups are commonly used to spread the
wrong information or give false alerts with the only intent of selling products.
Mails from untrusted sources advertising certain products or spreading some hardto-believe information, are not uncommon. Direct or indirect involvement in the
circulation of false information is ethically wrong. Giving wrong information can
hurt other parties or organizations that are affected on that particular theme.
 Refrain from copying software or buying pirated copies. Pay for software
unless it is free.
Explanation: Like any other artistic or literary work, software is copyrighted. A
piece of code is the original work of the individual who created it. It is copyrighted
in his/her name. In case of a developer writing software for the organization she
works for, the organization holds the copyright for it. Copyright holds true unless
its creators announce it is not. Obtaining illegal copies of copyrighted software is
unethical. It is not easy to do such things and in the end it will just be copied
illegally.
 Do not use someone else's computer resources unless authorized to.
Explanation: Multi-user systems have user specific passwords. Breaking into some
other user's password, thus intruding her private space is unethical. It is not ethical
to hack passwords for gaining unauthorized access to a password-protected
computer system. Accessing data that you are not authorized to access or gaining
access to another user's computer without her permission is not ethical. Privacy
will always be applied to such resources and were not supposed to get exposed and
hack in such ways that is not yours.
 It is wrong to claim ownership on a work which is the output of someone else's
intellect.
Explanation: Programs developed by a software developer are her property. If he
is working with an organization, they are the organization's property. Copying
them and propagating them in one's own name is unethical. This applies to any
creative work, program or design. Establishing ownership on a work which is not
yours is ethically wrong. Originality of any software/programs are to be keep safe
and trying to claim ownership will cause a viral disputes.
 Before developing a software, think about the social impact it can have.
Explanation: Looking at the social consequences that a program can have,
describes a broader perspective of looking at technology. A computer software on
release, reaches millions. Software like video games and animations or educational
software can have a social impact on their users. When working on animation
films or designing video games, for example, it is the programmer's responsibility
to understand his target audience/users and the effect it may have on them. For
example, a computer game for kids should not have content that can influence
them negatively. Similarly, writing malicious software is ethically wrong. A
software developer/development firm should consider the influence their code can
have on the society at large.
 In using computers for communication, be respectful and courteous with the
fellow members.
Explanation: The communication etiquette we follow in the real world applies to
communication over computers as well. While communicating over the Internet,
one should treat others with respect. One should not intrude others' private space,
use abusive language, make false statements or pass irresponsible remarks about
others. One should be courteous while communicating over the web and should
respect others' time and resources. Also, one should be considerate with a novice
computer user.
Business Ethics and Media:
Care must also be taken when making statements to the media that information given is
correct and not misleading. Information which, if made public would be likely to have
material effect on the share price or about certain transactions such as mergers,
acquisitions or disposals or transactions with related parties is subject to specific rules.
Such matters should be referred to the relevant Regional General Counsel. Enquiries
from the media should be referred to company media relations experts and statements
should only be made by designated spokespersons.
Only authorised spokespersons are permitted to represent the company in media or
investor relations.
Social media and Business Ethics
Social media is an umbrella term used to describe social interaction through a suite of
technology based tools, many of which are internet based. This includes, but is not
limited to, internet forums,
Networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and GooglePlus, webcasts, and
blogs.
Social media exhibits unique characteristics when compared t traditional media forms.
Its speed and scope means that once content is publish edit is available instantaneously,
to a potentially global audience. Social media tools tend to be free or available at a very
low cost relative to other forms of media and do not require users to have much
technical knowledge. This allows larger numbers of individuals to access and publish
material than with traditional media forms.
Social media is usually interactive in a way that traditional media is not, so users can
comment on and edit published material, making it difficult to control content. Social
media blurs private/public boundaries when individuals
personalinformationandopinionsenterthepublicdomain.Theboundariesbetweenpersonala
ndworklifealsobecomeblurredascompaniesmakeuseofsocial media (originally designed
for personal use) for business purposes, and likewise employees access personalities
while at work. A 2011DLA Piper survey found social media is used for personal and
work related activities by 95% of employees.
These unique characteristics of social media pose ethical challenges for business, through
employees use of social media on behalf of the company, as well as their personal use.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to
sustainable development by delivering economics, social and environmental benefits for
all stakeholders.
CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and
implemented differs greatly.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to
sustainable development by delivering economic, socil and environmental benefits for all
stakeholders.
CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and
implemented differs greatly for each company and country. Moreover, CSR is a very
broad concept that addresses many and various topics such as human rights, corporate
governance, health and safety, environmental effects, working conditions and
contribution to economic development. Whatever the definition is, the purpose of CSR is
to drive change towards sustainability.
Examples of Corporate Social Responsibility in India
Tata Group
Tata Group in India has a range of CSR projects, most of which are community
improvement programs. For example, it is a leading provider of maternal and child health
services, family planning, and has provided 98 percent immunization in Jamshedpur. The
company also endorses sports as a way of life. It has established a football academy,
archery academy, and promotes sports among employees. It offers healthcare services all
over the country with programs like rural health development.
Tata Group also has an organized relief program in case of natural disasters, including
long-term treatment and rebuilding efforts. It did laudable work during the Gujarat
earthquakes and Orissa floods. It also supports education, with over 500 schools, and also
is a benefactor of the arts and culture. It has done abundant work in improving the
environment and local populations around its industries.
Aptech
Aptech a leading education player with a global presence that has played a broad and
continued role in encouraging and nurturing education throughout the country since its
inception. As a global player with complete solutions-providing capabilities, Aptech has
a long history of participating in community activities. It has, in association with leading
NGOs, provided computers at schools, education to the deprived, and training and
awareness-camps.
Infosys
Infosys is aggressively involved in a variety of community growth programs. In 1996, the
company created the Infosys Foundation as a not-for-profit trust to which it contributes
up to 1 percent of profits after tax every year. Moreover, the Education and Research
Department at Infosys also works with employee volunteers on community development
projects.
The management team at Infosys continues to set examples in the area of corporate
citizenship and has involved itself vigorously in key national bodies. They have taken
initiatives to work in the areas of research and education, community service, rural
outreach programs, employment, healthcare for the poor, education, arts and culture, and
welfare activities undertaken by the Infosys Foundation.
Mahindra & Mahindra
At Mahindra & Mahindra, The K. C. Mahindra Education Trust was established in 1953
with the purpose of promoting education. Its vision is to renovate the lives of people in
India through education and financial assistance across age groups and across income
strata. The K. C. Mahindra Education Trust undertakes a number of education plans,
which make a difference to the lives of worthy students. The Trust has provided more
than Rs. 7.5 crore in the form of grants, scholarships and loans. It promotes education
mostly by the way of scholarships. The Nanhi Kali (children) project has over 3,300
children under it and the company aims to increase the number to 10,000 in the next two
years by reaching out to the underprivileged children, especially in rural areas.

Business Communication
Semester I – Notes
Unit 1: Theory of Communication
Chapter I
Concept of Communication
The English word ‘communication’ has been derived from the Latin word, ‘Communicare’ which means
to impart or participate or to transmit. The word ‘Communicare’ is derived from the root ‘Communis’
which means to make common or to share.
Communication is 1) the activity or process of sharing or exchanging ideas, feelings, information,
experience between two or more persons; 2) an act or instance of transmitting; 3) the information
actually communicated by some means.
Definitions of communication:
1) The Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as “the action of conveying or exchanging
information and ideas.”
2) Peter Little defines communication as “the process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and or organizations so that an understanding response results.”
3) Allen Lui (Louis) defines communication as “ Communication is the sum of all the things one person
does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It
involves a systematic process of telling, listening, understanding and responding.”
4) Keith Davis defines communication as “Communication is the transfer of information and
understanding from one person to another.”
Business Communication:
William G. Scott defines business communication as “Administrative communication is a process which
involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of
eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals.”
The last definition covers 4 aspects of administrative communication, as follows:
1) The sender’s ability to transmit his own ideas accurately.
2) The receiver’s mental ability to get the same idea as were transmitted i.e. accurate replication.
3) The feedback or the receiver’s response.
4) Eliciting action which will help to achieve the goals.
The process of communication involves a series of stages:
1) An idea arises in the mind of the sender, which he wants to share.
2) The sender encodes the idea in the form of a ‘message’.
3) The sender chooses some medium / channel to put across the message.
4) The receiver receives the message.
5) The receiver decodes – absorbs, understands, interprets the message.
6) The receiver sends feedback or his response.
The components or elements of the communication process are as follows:
1) The sender or the communicator
2) The message
3) Encoding
4) The medium / channel
5) The receiver
6) Decoding
7) Feedback
Importance of feedback in the process of communicationEffective feedback, both positive and negative, is very helpful. Feedback is valuable information that will
be used to make important decisions.
After getting the meaning of the message‘, the receiver provides feedback‘ which he =encodes‘ in the
form of a response/reaction/reply to the message. Feedback plays an important part in the
communication process, because it is desired and expected by both the sender‘ and the receiver‘. The
sender‘ wants to know whether and how his =message‘ has been received, and the =receiver‘, either
consciously or unconsciously, usually provides a sign indicating that he has received the message.
It should be noted that feedback may be positive or negative. Positive feedback indicates to the sender
the fact that his message has been received, understood, and accepted; and that he can proceed to the
next point. Negative feedback tells the sender that his message has not been properly understood. It,
therefore, functions as a corrective, as it makes the =sender‘ realize the defects or flaws in his manner
of encoding. He will, therefore, have to encode the same message in a different way, so as to enable the
=receiver‘ to understand it.
Feedback may be immediate or delayed. In the case of interpersonal communication it is quick, as the
sender is able to observe the response/reaction (e.g. a smile, nod, frown etc.) when he is conveying the
message. He can also guess whether the =receiver‘ agrees or disagrees with him.
However, in the case of a letter, feedback may be delayed as the =receiver‘ will take time to reply.
Sometimes, feedback is obtained indirectly, by observing the subsequent change of behaviour on the
part of the =receiver‘.
Feedback is very important in business. It is important for the businessperson to know whether his/her
clients and customers are satisfied with the products and services, or whether s/he needs to make
changes. Feedback from employees is also necessary to improve the performance of an organization.
The diagrammatical representation of the communication process can be shown as follows:
How to achieve effective communication:
1) Communicate for a purpose
2) Compose message with care
3) Study the receiver
4) Select appropriate medium
5) Provide feedback
6) Act promptly on receiving feedback.
Benefits of effective communication:
1. Healthy relations
2. Better performance
3. High morale
4. Good image unity
5. Reaching final goals
6. Smooth functioning
7. Greater efficiency
8. Higher productivity
9. Effective decision-making
10. Co-operation & Co-ordination
` ` ` `` `
Students are suppose to prepare notes on their own.
Emergence of communication as a key concept in the corporate and global world.
Impact of technology enabled communication : Types – Internet, Blogs, E-mail, Moodle, Social
media (Facebook, twitter and Whatsapp advantages and disadvantages)
Sender

Channel / Medium

Receiver
Chapter II
Channels and Objectives of Communication
Formal Communication
Downward communication:
Needed For:
1) To get the work done.
2) To prepare the workforce for challenges
3) To tackle misinformation & suspicion arising out of it
4) To create a feeling of pride & confidence in the workforce I order to motivate it and to
boost its morale.
5) To transmit work ethics & the organization‘s culture.

Advantage	Disadvantage
Discipline	Lack of vision & arbitrary decision making can prove detrimental and harmful to the organization
Implementation of orders happen efficiently	Balance in sharing information is important so is indicious use of discretion
Tasks & positions can be well defined	Delay implementation of decisions
Clarity in the minds of employees about their responsibility, avoids confusion	Oral communication leads to information loss, distraction & lack of accountability
It helps in uniting different level of authority & brings in team spirit	Absence of feedback mechanistic can lead to frustration, lack of trust in authority & feel exploited

Upward communication:
Needed for:
1) To forward employee-feedback
2) To report on official matters
3) To give voice on the difficulties, grievances, complaints, dissatisfaction, work related
demands of employees
4) To invite suggestion, creativity & participation in problem solving
5) To create a sense of belonging through participation

Advantage	Disadvantage
Employees participation	Failure on the part of subordinates to take initiative & participate in the decision making
Trust , emotional bonding, understanding & cooperation between management & employees	Long line of authority, inability of the seniors to listen or to act, create barriers
Employees enthusiastic	Delays due to slow transmission, distortion of communication further hamper the process
Authority earns subordinates cooperation response to management‘s call	Employees failure to handle upwards communication

Requirements:
1) Chain should be start
2) Executives should be trained for excellent listening skills
3) The organizations atmosphere should be conducive
Vertical Communication:
While Decisions are finally taken by the top management, there is room for employee
feedback, communication, wherein the management interacts with employees, invites
their participation in decision making, creates mechanisms to address their concerns
without compromising on its measures of control is called vertical communication.
Horizontal / Lateral Communication:
Need for:
1) To exchange official information
2) To create understanding and team spirit among members
3) To solve difficulties
4) To seek and extend co-operation
5) To save time when quick decisions have to be made

Advantage	Disadvantage
Helps in clarifying doubts, taking quick decisions & eliminating mistrust	Ungoverned horizontal communication to leads to discipline
It brings about better coordination, builds team spirit and ensure faster implementation of decisions	Employees tend to waste precious time arguing and debating over issues and decisions

It also check the grapevine

Requirements:
1) Employee must learn to extend cooperation & work towards achieving goals
2) The authority should delegate responsibilities to subordinates in order to quicken the
pace of work.
3) Horizontal Communication needs to be monitored as its uncontrolled transmission can
invite problems for the organization.
Diagonal / Crosswise
Needs for:
1) Speeds up the flow of information
2) Creates healthy work relationships
3) Brings in proper co-ordination among different sections
4) Makes problem solving easy
5) Controls distortion & dilution of message because of direct, inter leave communication
Requirements:
1) Organizations atmosphere should be trust & transparency
2) Proper training or orientation should be given to employees to handle diagonal
communication

Advantage	Disadvantage
Speeds up the flow of information	It is likely to bypass the vertical chain of commands. This may create doubts in the minds of bypassed superiors
Creates healthy work relationships	It may be seen as interference
Brings in proper co-ordination among different sections	It may create doubts the superior‘s accountability & cooperation
Makes problem solving easy	Decisions thus taken may be resisted by the bypassed authority and could spoil the organization atmosphere
Controls distortion & dilution of message because of direct, inter leave communication

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Grapevine is the plant or creeper on which grapes grow. The grapevine may glow or
move in any direction with the support of its tendrils. In the some way, informal
communication can move in any direction with the support of informal groups.
How it is generated?
1) People need to share & agree on important opinions & attitudes to feel that they belong
to a group
2) People need to share their hopes & ambitions with superiors
3) People need to express emotions such as joy, anger, hostility etc.
4) Because of the rigidity of the formal, structure, the people feel the need to bypass
―official channels‖ for the sake of expediency in getting & giving information about
performance on the job.
The various types of grapevine are:
1) Chain
2) Single strand chain
3) Gossip Chain
4) Probability Chain
5) Cluster Chain
6) Wheel
7) Star

Advantage	Disadvantage
Grapevine communication travels fast, It has vast reach	Negative information half truths, personalized accounts of events, gross distortions are passed on by the render
The content because of its immense personal appeal are readily believable	It often leads to lack of motivation & moral of employees

Management must be aware of the power of grapevine, it can often fail the formal
system, it is difficult to trace its origin & is difficult to stop or control completely.
Guidelines for Management
1) Circulate information that is accurate & strengthen upward channels of communication
2) Delegate responsibility & entrust employees with specific responsibility to strengthen
trust between itself & employees
3) Invite suggestion farm grievance & redress cells, publishing house journals, make
effective use of bulletins, notice boards & employee welfare schemes
4) Either cut the grapevine with official communication or use grapevine itself to
circulate official information
Objective:
1) Information :
About organization, rules, regulations, culture, products, market, research, decisions,
vision, mission, goal etc.
2) Advice & Counseling:
Providing guidance is yet another objective of downward communication, seniors,
experts can help
employees with troubleshooting & crisis management, assist them in solving problems
that can forge bonds between employees & the managements.
3) Order & Instructions:
Orders & instruction means is giving directions to the employees. Any authoritative
communication issued by a superior in order to monitor / govern the behavior of a junior
is know as a ‗order‘ when an orders is split furthers to meet specific issue, it becomes
instruction.
4) Suggestion:
To suggest means to propose or put forward an idea for consideration both upward &
downward
communication. Employee participation & involvement encourage creative thinking &
exposure to employee‘s talent. Employees feel valued & develop a sense of belonging.
5) Persuasion:
Persuasion is an effort to influence the mind, belief system or attitude of a person to
bring about the desired change in his / her behavior.
4 Steps to take while persuading :
1) Identification
2) Preparing the Receiver
3) Deliver the message
4) Prompting action
Important Factor:
1) Persuader‘s personal character & reputation
2) Persuader must make suitable & effective emotional appeal
3) Persuader must logically present his ideas, views etc. There must be reasonable
presentation of the persuaded messages.
6) Education & Training:
At the management level, at the employee‘s level and at the level of outside public.
7) Motivation:
Motivation means that inner state that energizes activates or moves and which directs
or channels
behavior towards certain goal.
Setting up the right kind of justice & rewards system & inviting the employee‘s
participation in decision making can create the right kind of emotional environment
8) Raising the moral of Employees:
Consequences of high moral & low moral.
Management can boost the moral of its employees by giving basis infrastructural
support, creating systems that reward effort, strengthening its official channels of
communication, encouraging upward
Communication, controlling the grapevine & taking measures to earn the trust of
employees.
Certain strategies opted by MNCs to boost morale of the employees:
1. Keep employees feeling their work is more than just a job.
Everyone wants to feel that his or her work has a higher purpose. Sometimes,
though, that purpose gets lost in the day-to-day grind. One of the key ways that
Snagajob.com, an online job-search company, based in Glen Allen, Virginia,
inspires its 126 employees is by sharing "I Got a Job!" stories that show them the
value of their work. Circulated by email, the real-life stories come from grateful
job seekers who recently landed a new job through the company's website.
2. Take time to creatively celebrate accomplishments.
It's natural to focus on what's ahead rather than reflect on how much has been
achieved. Taking time to reflect, though, helps employees appreciate how much
they have done. All departments at Acuity, a financial-services company based in
Sheboygan, Wis., are asked each year to recognize their own work by providing a
list of significant accomplishments of their team. The lists are reviewed by Acuity
officers, who select the 100 most outstanding achievements for inclusion in a "Top
100 Accomplishments" list. The latest list was designed as a book, Acuity World
Records, with the help of Guinness World Records, and given to all 831
employees.
3. Grant time off to employees to pursue projects they are passionate about.
Personal projects can provide an energizing break from regular responsibilities and
can serve as a source of innovation for a company. Atlassian, a developer of
collaboration software based in Sydney, encourages creativity during its "FedEx
Day." During this event, all 62 employees can work on anything that excites them
-- as long as it is somewhat related to Atlassian products or processes, can be
completed in the allotted time, and is fun. Employees have from 2 p.m. on a
Thursday until 4 p.m. Friday, giving them roughly 24 hours to deliver a project
(thus the name, FedEx Day). Then at a presentation, participants show off the
results of their projects. From these ideas, Atlassian has adopted more than a
dozen projects, ranging from product upgrades to process improvements.
4. Mix up the company's usual way of doing things.
Departing from the customary routine of meetings and cubicle life can go a long
way toward building morale. The accounting firm Ehrhardt Keefe Steiner &
Hottman, based in Denver, uses the concept of neighborhoods to shake things up.
All 387 employees are organized into neighborhoods, based on the floors or
sections of floors in each office. These groups have regular get-togethers and
shape the contours of meetings. For example, during an all-employee meeting day,
as the firm staged a neighborhood basketball tournament, each group came up
with team names, homemade jerseys, mascots, and cheerleaders.
5. Don't forget to have fun.
For the online discounter FatWallet, based in Rockton, Ill., fun is a regular part of
the schedule. Its 55 employees are invited to play in a monthly Game Day, an inhouse competition with activities ranging from Trivial Pursuit to Wii bowling
matches. The company also offers quarterly "fun" rewards when staffers achieve
certain goals, such as hockey games, casino nights, or playdays at at amusement
parks. Team-building events have included a city scavenger hunt in Chicago and a
rooftop Cubs game.
6. Train employees to develop positive attitudes.
During the height of the recession in 2009, employee morale became a big issue
for 4Imprint, a maker of customized promotional products, based in Oshkosh,
Wis. The company's training team decided to try to boost morale by setting up
classes for the 419 employees to watch and discuss videos with inspiring themes
like Lance Armstrong's comeback from cancer and the friendly culture at
Southwest Airlines.
7. Offer time away from the office to do some good.
Another way to build employee morale and camaraderie is through community
service. Studer Group, a Gulf Breeze, Fla.-based management consulting firm,
gives its 114 employees four paid hours a month to volunteer for a charitable
initiative or organization of their choice. Departments also take on volunteer
projects as a group.
8. Free Yoga classes
9. Team-based commissions
10. Work/life balance is encouraged with flexible schedules.
11. on-site gym available to all employees
12. state-of-the-art office
13. extensive training programs
14. a profit-sharing plan
15. Unlimited vacation days
16. Allowing pets in the office
For example Google does the following things:
1. Google provides the surviving spouse or partner of a deceased employee 50% of
their salary for the next 10 years.
2. Googlers in San Francisco and Mountain View report being able to bring their pets
to work.
3. Employees in Mountain View, California, and New York City have an on-site
gym.
4. They can also enjoy beer and wine in the office on Fridays.
5. Googlers get free meals and snacks in the office, which one Glassdoor reviewer
called "varied and delicious." Reviewers called the food "healthy," "tasty," and
even "on par with any of the top restaurants in NYC."
6. Google offers a 50% 401k match up to $8,250.
7. New mothers get paid leave up to 22 weeks, while fathers and adoptive parents get
between seven and 12 weeks of paid leave. One senior software engineer wrote the
benefit "...helps create an understanding that any team member might go on leave
now and again, and that this is expected and normal and okay."
8. First year engineers get 15 days of paid time off — that jumps to 20 days after
three years and 25 days after five years. And anyone can take an unpaid three
month leave of absence.
9) Warning & Reprimand:
To warn is to inform a person of unpleasant consequences.
Management notices the misdemeanor and brings it to the notice of the concerned
employee----- Oral or Soft warning ----- Warning in writing or memo---- After 2 memos
are issued service of the employee is terminated.
Chapter III : Methods & Modes of Communication
Methods – Verbal & Non verbal
Media – Telephone, Fax, Computer, Internet.

Methods	Modes
Verbal	Non-verbal	Electronics
Oral	Written	Body language	Silence	Fax
Face-to-face	Letters	Facial expressions	Signs	Computers
Telephone	Memos	Gestures	Postures	Internet
Notices	Posters	Colours	E-mail
Circulars	Dress & grooming	Maps
Reports	Proxemics	Graphs & Charts

Selection of methods should be based on –
1. Speed 2. Accuracy 3. Circumstances 4. Confidence and safety 5. Expenses
6. Impression 7. Feedback
Oral Communication: Oral communication is communication by means of spoken
words.
Principles of oral communications:
1. Know your objective
2. Know your audience
3. Know your subject
4. Know how to use your voice
5. Know how to use body language
6. Know when to stop
Advantages:

1. Its direct & time saving	2. It saves money
3. It conveys the exact meaning of words	4. It provides immediate feedback
5. It is more persuasive in nature	6. On-the-spot additions, deletions and corrections are possible
7. Confidential messages can be communicated	8. It is informal and friendlier
9. Develop relations	10. Motivates the speaker.

Disadvantages:

1. It lacks legal validity	2. Possibility of misunderstanding
3. It lacks accountability	4. Problem of retention
5. The need for good speaking skills	6. Not always effective
7. Lacks planning	8. Diversion of subject matter

Face-to-face communication

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. Combination of verbal & non-verbal factors	1. Difficult to practice in large organizations
2. Immediate feedback possible	2. Not effective if the receiver does not pay attention
3. Modifications while delivering the message is possible	3. Not effective in large gatherings
4. Particularly suitable for discussions

Written communication: Written communication is the expression of language by
means of visible signs.

Advantages	Disadvantage
1. Reference	1. Time, trouble & expenses
2. Permanent record	2. Feedback is slow
3. Legal validity	3. Problem of storage
4. Aids memory & retention	4. Lacks friendliness
5. Accurate & organized	5. Unsuited to countries where illiteracy rate is high
6. Fixing responsibility	6. Problem of instant clarification
7. Wider reach	7. Problem of writers
8. Goodwill	8. Problem of communicating secret information
9. Less chances of misunderstanding
10. Suitable for lengthy messages
11. Corporate image

Non-verbal Communication:
Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us
spend about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts,
and ideas to others. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our
communication is of a non-verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body
posture and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear
our clothes or the silence we keep.
In person-to-person communications our messages are sent on two levels simultaneously.
If the nonverbal cues and the spoken message are incongruous, the flow of
communication is hindered. Right or wrong, the receiver of the communication tends to
base the intentions of the sender on the non- verbal cues he receives.
Categories and Features
G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:
Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone
of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.
Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through creative
expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.
Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal
flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.
Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or egobuilding symbols.
Our concern here will be with what Porter has called the physical method of non-verbal
communication.
Knowledge of non-verbal communication is important managers who serve as leaders
of organizational "teams," for at least two reasons:
 To function effectively as a team leader the manager must interact with the other
members successfully. Non-verbal cues, when interpreted correctly, provide him
with one means to do so.
 The team members project attitudes and feelings through non-verbal
communication. Some personal needs such as approval, growth, achievement, and
recognition may be met in effective teams. The extent to which these needs are
met is closely related to how perceptive the team leader and team members are to
non-verbal communication in themselves and in others on the team.
If the team members show a true awareness to non-verbal cues, the organization
will have a better chance to succeed, for it will be an open, honest, and confronting unit.
Argyle and his associates have been studying the features of nonverbal communication
that provide information to managers and their team members.
Non verbal communication is indirect, without words or without verbal messages. Non
verbal communication constitutes 45% of the impact of message in oral communication.
The major elements of non-verbal communication can be divided into body language
(Kinesics), vocal tone, space & proximics, dress & grooming etc.
1. Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication. The
superior in the organization generally maintains eye contact longer than the
subordinate. The direct stare of the sender of the message conveys candor and
openness. It elicits a feeling of trust. Downward glances are generally associated
with modesty. Eyes rolled upward are associated with fatigue.
2. Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey
information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are
monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these
expressions may be similar across cultures.
3. Gestures : One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a
hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While
some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others
are individually learned and idiosyncratic.
A gesture is an action of body , hand or head, which conveys a message. Eg: yes,
no, Namaste, wait.
a. Communicating information: eg: ‗V‘ sign, pointing finger etc.
b. Communicating information : eg: clapping indicates appreciation, fistclenching shows aggression, face touching shows anxiety
c. Supports speech
d. Expressing self image
4. Posture: The way we stand or sit, the position of the hand & head, basically how
we carry ourselves. Eg. Hunched shoulders show low confidence, in emergency a
person tends to sit on the edge of a chair. Posture can be used to determine a
participant‘s degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between
communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other
communicator. Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal
relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person‘s
left side is parallel to the other‘s right side, leads to favorable perception of
communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or a
decrease in a backwards lean also signify positive sentiment during
communication. Posture is understood through such indicators as direction of lean,
body orientation, arm position, and body openness.
5. Tactile Communication
Communication through touch is obviously non-verbal. Used properly it can
create a more direct message than dozens of words; used improperly it can build
barriers and cause mistrust. You can easily invade someone's space through this
type of communication. If it is used reciprocally, it indicates solidarity; if not used
reciprocally, it tends to indicate differences in status. Touch not only facilitates the
sending of the message, but the emotional impact of the message as well.
6. Dress & grooming : Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative
purpose. This man's clothes identify him as male and a police officer; his badges
and shoulder sleeve insignia give information about his job and rank. Elements
such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, odors, and clothing send
nonverbal messages during interaction.
7. Proxemics: Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical
space around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message
influences the way the message is interpreted.
The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures and different
settings within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into
four main categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space.
The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human
behavior regarding personal space. Hargie & Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such
territories:
1) Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associated with someone who has
exclusive use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the
owner‘s permission.
2) Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no ―right‖ to occupancy, but
people may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For example,
someone may sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved if someone
else sits there.
3) Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set
period, such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a
limited claim over that space, they often exceed that claim. For example, it was
found that people take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to
take that space.
4) Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For
example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk
around the group rather than disturb it.
Space can also be divided into :
a. Intimate distance
b. Personal distance
c. Social distance
d. Public distance
8. Paralanguage: Includes pitch, volume, intonation etc. The tone of voice, rate of
speech, pause, accent can not only communicate but alter the meaning
significantly. Researchers have found that the tone, pitch, quality of voice, and
rate of speaking convey emotions that can be accurately judged regardless of the
content of the message. The important thing to gain from this is that the voice is
important, not just as the conveyor of the message, but as a complement to the
message. As a communicator you should be sensitive to the influence of tone,
pitch, and quality of your voice on the interpretation of your message by the
receiver.
9. Silence
Silence can be a positive or negative influence in the communications process. It can
provide a link between messages or sever relationships. It can create tension and
uneasiness or create a peaceful situation. Silence can also be judgmental by indicating
favor or disfavor - agreement or disagreement.
For example, suppose a manager finds a couple of his staff members resting.
If he believes these staff members are basically lazy, the idleness conveys to him that
they are "goofing off" and should be given additional assignments.
If he believes these staff members are self-motivated and good workers, the idleness
conveys to him that they are taking a well-deserved "break."
If he is personally insecure, the idleness conveys to him that they are threatening his
authority.
10. Time
Time can be an indicator of status. How long will you give the staff member who wishes
to speak to you? How long will you make him wait to see you? Do you maintain a
schedule? Is your schedule such that your subordinates must arrange their schedules to
suit yours? In a healthy organization, the manager and his subordinates use time to
communicate their mutual respect to each other.
11. Visual & Auditory Signs & Signals: The word sign has been derived from the
latin word signum which means mark. Signs eg. Plus, minus, multiplication,
divisions, can be used in chemistry, maths, music, road signs etc. Auditory signs
includes door bell, college bell, ambulance siren etc.
12. Posters: Posters are combination of verbal & non-verbal factors, because they
consists of pictures as well as words. Posters have three parts namely :
e. Headline : This is short but catchy slogan
f. Illustration: This is the visual part consisting of pictures or photographs.
g. Copy : This is the written matter, which gives necessary details.
 like old communist poster hero
 key word - be inspired
 shirt and white tie
 looking up into the sky
 sharp clean holy preacher
 suit – businesslike
 angle of face - on a mission –
sun over flag
A new day dawning in America
13. Colours : Color is a form of non verbal communication. It is not a static energy
and its meaning can change from one day to the next with any individual - it all
depends on what energy they are expressing at that point in time. Every colour
represents something.
Color Meaning
Red
Red is the color of fire and blood, so it is associated with energy, war, danger, strength,
power, determination as well as passion, desire, and love.
Red is a very emotionally intense color. It enhances human metabolism, increases
respiration rate, and raises blood pressure. It has very high visibility, which is why stop
signs, stoplights, and fire equipment are usually painted red. In heraldry, red is used to
indicate courage. It is a color found in many national flags.
Red brings text and images to the foreground. Use it as an accent color to stimulate
people to make quick decisions; it is a perfect color for 'Buy Now' or 'Click Here' buttons
on Internet banners and websites. In advertising, red is often used to evoke erotic feelings
(red lips, red nails, red-light districts, 'Lady in Red', etc). Red is widely used to indicate
danger (high voltage signs, traffic lights). This color is also commonly associated with
energy, so you can use it when promoting energy drinks, games, cars, items related to
sports and high physical activity.
Light red represents joy, sexuality, passion, sensitivity, and love.
Pink signifies romance, love, and friendship. It denotes feminine qualities and
passiveness.
Dark red is associated with vigor, willpower, rage, anger, leadership, courage, longing,
malice, and wrath.
Brown suggests stability and denotes masculine qualities.
Reddish-brown is associated with harvest and fall.
Orange
Orange combines the energy of red and the happiness of yellow. It is associated with joy,
sunshine, and the tropics. Orange represents enthusiasm, fascination, happiness,
creativity, determination, attraction, success, encouragement, and stimulation.
To the human eye, orange is a very hot color, so it gives the sensation of heat.
Nevertheless, orange is not as aggressive as red. Orange increases oxygen supply to the
brain, produces an invigorating effect, and stimulates mental activity. It is highly
accepted among young people. As a citrus color, orange is associated with healthy food
and stimulates appetite. Orange is the color of fall and harvest. In heraldry, orange is
symbolic of strength and endurance.
Orange has very high visibility, so you can use it to catch attention and highlight the most
important elements of your design. Orange is very effective for promoting food products
and toys.
Dark orange can mean deceit and distrust.
Red-orange corresponds to desire, sexual passion, pleasure, domination, aggression, and
thirst for action.
Gold evokes the feeling of prestige. The meaning of gold is illumination, wisdom, and
wealth. Gold often symbolizes high quality.
Yellow
Yellow is the color of sunshine. It's associated with joy, happiness, intellect, and energy.
Yellow produces a warming effect, arouses cheerfulness, stimulates mental activity, and
generates muscle energy. Yellow is often associated with food. Bright, pure yellow is an
attention getter, which is the reason taxicabs are painted this color. When overused,
yellow may have a disturbing effect; it is known that babies cry more in yellow rooms.
Yellow is seen before other colors when placed against black; this combination is often
used to issue a warning. In heraldry, yellow indicates honor and loyalty. Later the
meaning of yellow was connected with cowardice.
Use yellow to evoke pleasant, cheerful feelings. You can choose yellow to promote
children's products and items related to leisure. Yellow is very effective for attracting
attention, so use it to highlight the most important elements of your design. Men usually
perceive yellow as a very lighthearted, 'childish' color, so it is not recommended to use
yellow when selling prestigious, expensive products to men – nobody will buy a yellow
business suit or a yellow Mercedes. Yellow is an unstable and spontaneous color, so
avoid using yellow if you want to suggest stability and safety. Light yellow tends to
disappear into white, so it usually needs a dark color to highlight it. Shades of yellow are
visually unappealing because they loose cheerfulness and become dingy.
Dull (dingy) yellow represents caution, decay, sickness, and jealousy.
Light yellow is associated with intellect, freshness, and joy.
Green
Green is the color of nature. It symbolizes growth, harmony, freshness, and fertility.
Green has strong emotional correspondence with safety. Dark green is also commonly
associated with money.
Green has great healing power. It is the most restful color for the human eye; it can
improve vision. Green suggests stability and endurance. Sometimes green denotes lack of
experience; for example, a 'greenhorn' is a novice. In heraldry, green indicates growth
and hope. Green, as opposed to red, means safety; it is the color of free passage in road
traffic.
Use green to indicate safety when advertising drugs and medical products. Green is
directly related to nature, so you can use it to promote 'green' products. Dull, darker green
is commonly associated with money, the financial world, banking, and Wall Street.
Dark green is associated with ambition, greed, and jealousy.
Yellow-green can indicate sickness, cowardice, discord, and jealousy.
Aqua is associated with emotional healing and protection.
Olive green is the traditional color of peace.
Blue
Blue is the color of the sky and sea. It is often associated with depth and stability. It
symbolizes trust, loyalty, wisdom, confidence, intelligence, faith, truth, and heaven.
Blue is considered beneficial to the mind and body. It slows human metabolism and
produces a calming effect. Blue is strongly associated with tranquility and calmness. In
heraldry, blue is used to symbolize piety and sincerity.
You can use blue to promote products and services related to cleanliness (water
purification filters, cleaning liquids, vodka), air and sky (airlines, airports, air
conditioners), water and sea (sea voyages, mineral water). As opposed to emotionally
warm colors like red, orange, and yellow; blue is linked to consciousness and intellect.
Use blue to suggest precision when promoting high-tech products.
Blue is a masculine color; according to studies, it is highly accepted among males. Dark
blue is associated with depth, expertise, and stability; it is a preferred color for corporate
America.
Avoid using blue when promoting food and cooking, because blue suppresses appetite.
When used together with warm colors like yellow or red, blue can create high-impact,
vibrant designs; for example, blue-yellow-red is a perfect color scheme for a superhero.
Light blue is associated with health, healing, tranquility, understanding, and softness.
Dark blue represents knowledge, power, integrity, and seriousness.
Purple
Purple combines the stability of blue and the energy of red. Purple is associated with
royalty. It symbolizes power, nobility, luxury, and ambition. It conveys wealth and
extravagance. Purple is associated with wisdom, dignity, independence, creativity,
mystery, and magic.
According to surveys, almost 75 percent of pre-adolescent children prefer purple to all
other colors. Purple is a very rare color in nature; some people consider it to be artificial.
Light purple is a good choice for a feminine design. You can use bright purple when
promoting children's products.
Light purple evokes romantic and nostalgic feelings.
Dark purple evokes gloom and sad feelings. It can cause frustration.
White
White is associated with light, goodness, innocence, purity, and virginity. It is considered
to be the color of perfection.
White means safety, purity, and cleanliness. As opposed to black, white usually has a
positive connotation. White can represent a successful beginning. In heraldry, white
depicts faith and purity.
In advertising, white is associated with coolness and cleanliness because it's the color of
snow. You can use white to suggest simplicity in high-tech products. White is an
appropriate color for charitable organizations; angels are usually imagined wearing white
clothes. White is associated with hospitals, doctors, and sterility, so you can use white to
suggest safety when promoting medical products. White is often associated with low
weight, low-fat food, and dairy products.
Black
Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, death, evil, and mystery.
Black is a mysterious color associated with fear and the unknown (black holes). It usually
has a negative connotation (blacklist, black humor, 'black death'). Black denotes strength
and authority; it is considered to be a very formal, elegant, and prestigious color (black
tie, black Mercedes). In heraldry, black is the symbol of grief.
Black gives the feeling of perspective and depth, but a black background diminishes
readability. A black suit or dress can make you look thinner. When designing for a
gallery of art or photography, you can use a black or gray background to make the other
colors stand out. Black contrasts well with bright colors. Combined with red or orange –
other very powerful colors – black gives a very aggressive color scheme.
eg. Traffic signals, Interpretation of different colours like red represents danger or
is considered as auspicious in wedding, white purity or peace etc.
Colours and Branding:
A brand‘s logo and visual identity will comprise a number of visual cues, such
as shapes, symbols, number, and words. But the number one visual component
that people remember most is colour. In fact, colour increases brand recognition
by up to 80%.
When it comes to branding, the power of color is both emotional and practical.
On an emotional level, color can affect how consumers feel when they look at a
brand, while on a practical level it can help a brand stand out in the crowd.
A number of studies on the relationship between color and branding
(here, here and here) reveal that up to 90% of snap judgments made about
products can be based on color alone, that colors influence how consumers view
the ‗personality‘ of the brand in question, and that the relationship between
brands and color hinges on the perceived appropriateness of the color being the
right ‗fit‘ for the particular brand.
Whether you're a designer or a business owner, it's helpful to know color
meanings and symbolism so you can make informed decisions. If you choose a
color meaning 'tranquility' for your extreme sports brand, you might be sending
the wrong message.
This is all well and good, but how do you go about choosing a color that
suits your brand? In this article, we will examine the use of color in branding
and give you an 11-color guide to help you choose the perfect one for your
brand.
01. Red – For Danger, Passion, Excitement & Energy
Meanings: Red has a number of different contextual associations and in
branding can deliver a highly visible punch. It has the ability to rev desire; and
not surprisingly when it is the color of fire, danger, and blood on one hand; and
love, sexuality and passion on the other. It is a bold, energetic and lively color
that can symbolize strength, confidence and power.
02. Orange – Fresh, Youthful, Creative & Adventurous
Meanings: Blending the warmth of red and the optimism of yellow, orange
communicates activity and energy. And of course it‘s hard not to go past orange
as the color of, well, oranges, and all their vitamin c byproducts, which
immediately makes orange feel fresh and healthy. Orange is not for everyone (it
was certainly the color of the decade in the 1970s) and can therefore tap into
associations of youthfulness, creativity and adventure.
03. Yellow – Optimistic, Cheerful, Playful & Happy
Meanings: Being the color of sunshine, yellow puts a smile on the dial. It is the
most visible color from a distance (which is why it‘s used for street signs) and
communicates cheerfulness, friendliness, joy and energy (who doesn‘t need
more yellow in their life?) It can also be associated with mental clarity and
intellect (again, who doesn‘t need more yellow?) However, yellow is also a
cautionary color used in life vests, police cordoning tape and hazardous areas.
04. Green – Natural, Vitality, Prestige & Wealth
Meanings: Green has two very common meanings that are quite paradoxical;
one being nature and the environment, and the other being finance and wealth.
When it comes to nature, green represents plant life and growth and is
consequently used to convey being ‗green‘ in the environmental, sustainable,
organic, natural sense of the word. And of course green is, as the saying goes,
‗the color of money‘ (US money, that is) and therefore associated with wealth
and stability.
05. Blue – Communicative, Trustworthy, Calming & Depressed
Meanings: Blue is the most universally preferred color, perhaps for its very
versatile qualities. It is a favorite color for companies that wish to convey
reliability, trustworthiness and communication (I‘m looking at you Facebook,
Twitter and Samsung) and for expressing the authority and officialdom of
organizations (oh, hey there Constable). It is also appreciated for it‘s calming
and harmonious qualities being associated with the sea and sky. However, being
associated with the emotional feeling of being ‗blue‘ it is also used to express
sadness or depression.
06. Purple – Royalty, Majesty, Spiritual & Mysterious
Meanings: Purple is a low arousal color. It is traditionally associated with
royalty, majesty or nobility as well as having a spiritual or mysterious quality.
Darker shades often represent luxury or opulence while lighter lavender shades
are quite feminine, sentimental and even nostalgic.
07. Brown – Organic, Wholesome, Simple & Honest
Meanings: Brown gets a lot of use in this era of organic and natural food,
beauty and products. Nature inspired it represents a feeling of wholesomeness,
orderliness, and being grounded. It is simple, strong, durable and honest and
may express that your brand has better things to care about than superfluous
color, when really… (mind trick!).
08. Pink – Feminine, Sentimental, Romantic & Exciting
Meanings: Pink has long been (stereotypically) associated with females and is
often viewed as being ‗girly.‘ However, like all colors, pink is quite diverse and
the level of intensity can impact its meaning. Pale pink, often marketed as the
official color of little girls, represents sweetness while dusty pink can be more
sentimental and light pink more romantic. At the other end of the scale, hot pink
indicates youthfulness, energy, fun and excitement. A soft pink is now often
referred to as 'millennial pink', for the generation's fondness for the blush tone.
Soft pink interiors, graphics and more are particularly popular with Generation
Y.
09. Black – Sophisticated, Formal, Luxurious & Sorrowful
Meanings: While color is more likely to increase brand recognition there‘s no
reason black—when used appropriately—can‘t be just as distinctive, memorable
and communicative of a brand‘s attributes. Black is to be taken seriously. It
represents power, luxury, sophistication and exclusivity on one hand; and death,
evil and mystery on the other. From formality to mourning to power, black is
bold, classic and not to be fooled with.
10. White – Purity, Simplicity, Innocence & Minimalism
Meanings: White represents simplicity, purity, innocence and perfection. And if
you had to identify one brand that has used white to convey its brand message to
perfection it would have to be Apple – white represents the simplicity of the
products in both their form and function. White also comes with a starkness or
sterility about it, which is often used be designers to convey a minimalist
aesthetic and clean, modern quality.
11. Multicolor – Variety
Meanings: Of course, what about mixing multiple colors in one logo, such as
Google, the Olympics and NBC? Diverse color generally indicates variety – be
it representative of people, countries, or offerings.
Color is an important consideration in your brand identity system. Colors
have a significant impact on people’s emotional state. They also have been
shown to impact people‘s ability to concentrate and learn. They have a wide
variety of specific mental associations. In fact, the effects are physiological,
psychological, and sociological.
For instance:
 Non-primary colors are more calming than primary colors.
 Blue is the most calming of the primary colors, followed closely by a
lighter red.
 Test takers score higher and weight lifters lift more in blue rooms.
 Blue text increases reading retention.
 Yellow evokes cheerfulness. Houses with yellow trim or flower gardens
sell faster.
 Reds and oranges encourage diners to eat quickly and leave. Red also
makes food more appealing and influences people to eat more. (It is no
coincidence that fast food restaurants almost always use these colors.)
 Pink enhances appetites and has been shown to calm prison inmates.
 Blue and black suppress appetites.
 Children prefer primary colors. (Notice that children‘s toys and books
often use these colors.)
 Forest green and burgundy appeals to the wealthiest 3 percent of
Americans and often raises the perceived price of an item.
 Orange is often used to make an expensive item seem less expensive.
 Red clothing can convey power.
 Red trim is used in bars and casinos because it can cause people to lose
track of time.
 White is typically associated with cool, clean and fresh.
 Red is often associated with Christmas and orange with Halloween and
Thanksgiving.
 Black clothes make people look thinner.
 Black is also associated with elegance and sophistication. It also seems
mysterious.
Colors also have a functional impact on readability, eye-strain, ability to
attract attention, ability to be seen at night, etc. This is important in choosing
colors for signing, website pages, prints ads, and other marketing media.
 The most visible color is yellow.
 The most legible of all color combinations are black on yellow and green
on white followed by red on white.
 It is no surprise that most traffic signs use these color combinations.
 Black on white is the easiest to read, on paper, and on computer screens.
 Hard colors (red, orange and yellow) are more visible and tend to make
objects look larger and closer. They are easier to focus upon. They create
excitement and cause people to over-estimate time.
 Soft colors (violet, blue and green) are less visible and tend to make
objects look smaller and further away. They aren‘t as easy to focus upon.
They have a calming effect, increase concentration, and cause people to
under-estimate time.
Usually, it is advantageous for a brand to consistently ―own‖ certain colors,
which provide an additional recognition cue.
14. Maps, Graphs & Charts:
h. Maps: A map is a drawing on paper that shows location, size & other
features of countries.
i. Line / Pie / Bar graph: present numerical or statistical data.
j. Charts : are used for mounting maps & graphs for better visual effects.
Modes of communication
1. Telephone – Telephone is a device that transmits speech at a distance through the
medium of electronic waves. In 1876 telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
Types of telephones:-
1. Landline or standard telephones
2. Cellular or Mobile phones: These are wireless devices that use radio waves to transmit
sounds. The two main cellular systems in operation are GSM – Global System for Mobile
Communications, and CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access.
3. Satellite phones: These are used in areas where communication links are absent or
destroyed.
4. Ethernet phones: There are digital phones which connect directly to a computer
network.
Telephone services: 1) Networking: – This works as a base for computer network and
fax transmission.
2) Teleconferencing and videoconferencing : - Sounds and video are transmitted via
phone lines or satellites, so that people in different places and different countries can be
communicate with one another at the same time.
Telephone etiquette:
1. Speak politely, precisely, clearly, confidently. Be positive & talk friendly with a
smile in voice.
2. Avoid shouting or speaking too low.
3. Listen carefully and if a part of message is not clear, politely ask for repetition.
4. While answering telephone calls, introduce yourself, your company & greet the
person.
5. Before making a call, one must be mentally prepared, if need be note down points.
6. Make sure you have delivered the message completely and is understood by the
receiving party.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. Time saving device.	1. Body language cannot be communicated.
2. Immediate feedback	2. It is sometimes not time saving
3. Legal validity	3. Call may be made at a wrong time.
4. Intercom facility
5. It provides a large range of services like

STD (Subscriber Trunk dialing), ISD (International Subscriber dialing), call waiting, call forwarding etc.

2. Fax: Fax is connected to telephone , can be used to send documents, photos, charts,
graphs, drawings, diagrams, certificates etc. It scans a printed page, converts it into
signals & transmit this signal over a telephone line to the receiving fax machine.
Drawbacks – cost, time, quality.
3. Computer –
1. Parts of computers – input, output, storage, processing devices.
2. What is software & hardware?
3. Uses of computer.
4. LAN, WAN, Internet.
5. Uses of Internet – Search, distant learning, E-commerce, videoconferencing, E-mail ,
social networking sites, cloud computing etc.
Chapter IV
Barriers to communication
The word barrier means an obstacle, a hindrance or simply a problem that comes in a way of
transmission of a message and blocks the process, either completely or partially.
Different types of barriers are as follows:
1. Physical or environmental barriers:
a. Noise - The noise created by external factors like traffic, playing of loud music,
trains and airplanes, or by crowds of people, affects our communication.
b. Time & distance - Time becomes a physical barrier when people have to
communicate across different time zones in different countries. The physical
distance between people who need to communicate can also cause problems
because it does not allow oral or face-to-face communication.
c. Defects in communication system – Mechanical problems and defects in
instruments of communication also create physical barriers, as in a faulty fax
machine or typewriter. Similarly, a computer that hangs, or a dead telephone line
can lead to non-transmission of messages. eg. No range in mobile, technical
problem in mike or speakers.
d. Wrong selection of medium – The sender selects the medium which is not
familiar to the receiver.
e. Physiological defects like stammering, hearing defects, mumbling while speaking
etc.
2. Language or Semantic barriers:
Language is the main medium of communication and words are its tools. Language
proves to be a barrier at diferent levels, such as semantic (meaning), syntactic (grammar),
phonological (pronunciation, intonation, pitch etc.) and finally linguistic (across
languages) Thus, language barriers can arise in different ways:
a. Jargon or unfamiliar terminology - There are some special terms or technical
words used by people belonging to a certain group or field of work such as
doctors, lawyers, computer software engineers or college students. They use
words which are their own, specialised jargon which cannot be understood by
anyone outside their group.
b. Difference in language – Unfamiliar language becomes a barrier when people do
not know each other‗s language. This barrier can be overcome by using a
common medium of communication, as in a classroom. Translation is also an
important way of overcoming this barrier.
c. Words are of two kinds: extensional and intentional words. Extensional words are
clear in their meaning and therefore do not create barriers – such as words like
boy,
chair, garden etc. Intentional words are words that describe and they can be
understood differently by different people, according to the meaning that a person
gives to the word. Thus good, bad, beautiful are intentional words, and a simple
sentence like she is a good girl. can create confusion because the meaning of
the word ‗good‘ is unclear.
d. Sometimes, the same word is used in different contexts, giving rise totally
different meanings. A word like =hard‗, for example can be used in different
ways: hard chair,
hard-hearted, hard drink, having a hard time – all these use the same word but the
meanings are different.
e. Barriers can be created when we come across words, which have the same sound
when pronounced, but which mean very different things. Examples: words like
fair and fare; bear and bare; council and counsel.
3. Psychological barriers:
Psyche means mind. Psychological barriers are created in the mind. Communication is a
mental activity and its aim is to create understanding. But the human mind is complex
and not all communication can result in understanding. There are several kinds of
psychological barriers which can come in the way of understanding.
(a) Emotions: Emotions are among the most common psychological barriers to
communication. The emotion may be connected to the communication received or it
may be present in the sender‗s or receiver‗s mind, even before the communication takes
place. In both cases, it acts as a barrier. Emotions can be positive, like happiness and joy,
or negative, like fear, anger, mistrust etc. Both positive and negative emotions act as
barriers,
if they are not kept in check.
(b) Prejudice: A prejudice is an opinion held by a person for which there is no rational
basis or valid reason. It can be against something or someone, or in favour of it, but it
becomes a barrier to a meaningful communication. Prejudices are based on ignorance and
lack of
information, e.g., prejudices about certain communities or groups of people.
(c) Halo effect: Sometimes our reactions to people are not balanced or objective; they are
of an extreme nature. Either we like a person so much that we can find no shortcomings
in her/him, or we dislike someone so much that we can see nothing good in her/him. In
both cases, we commit errors of judgment and fail to understand the person.
(d) Self-image or different perceptions: Every person has in her/his mind a certain image
of herself/himself. S/he thinks of herself/himself in a certain way. This is their perception
of themselves, their self-image. One‗s self-image is the product of one‗s heredity, one‗s
environment and one‗s experiences, and thus every person‗s self-image is unique and
different from the others. Self-image can create a barrier because we accept
communication
which is compatible with our self-image. We avoid or reject communication, which goes
against our perception of ourselves.
(e) Closed Mind: A closed mind is one which refuses to accept an idea or opinion on a
subject, because it is different from his idea. Such persons form their opinion on a
subject, and then refuse to listen to anyone who has something different to say about it. A
closed mind may be the result of some past experience or just habit. It is very difficult to
remove this psychological barrier.
(f) Status: Status refers to rank or position. It could be economic, social or professional
status. In any organisation, hierarchy creates differences in rank, and this is a normal
situation. Thus, status by itself does not cause barriers; but when a person becomes too
conscious of his status, whether high or low, then status becomes a barrier. For instance,
in a business organisation, a senior executive who is unduly conscious of his seniority
will not communicate properly with his juniors, and will refrain from giving them the
required
information. Similarly, if a junior is acutely conscious of his junior status, he will avoid
communicating with his seniors, even when it is necessary
(g) Inattentiveness and Impatience: Sometimes the receiver may not pay attention to the
sender‗s message, or he may be too impatient to hear the message fully and properly.
Such barriers are common in oral communication.
Overcoming psychological barriers:
1. Adopt flexible and open-minded attitude
2. Training of listening skills
3. Exposure to different environment, views will help to broaden outlook
4. Listening with empathy helps in making oneself more adapting to other‘s perceptions.
4. Cross-cultural barriers: Mary Allen Guffey defines communication as ,‖the complex
system of values, traits, morals and customs shared by a society.‖
Cultural diversity within a country, and cultural differences between people from
different countries, are a major cause of barriers. This is because people are conditioned
by their cultures, and they develop certain habits of working, communicating, eating,
dressing etc. according to their cultural conditioning. They find it difficult to get through
to people who come from an alien culture, and who have different habits. A simple thing
like a greeting to
welcome a person is vastly different in India from a greeting in, for example, an Arab
country, or in Japan. Food and dress habits of a different culture can make a person
uncomfortable. Concepts of space and time are also different across cultures; for
example,
Indians do not mind sitting close to each other and sharing space in offices or in public
places. However, a European would not be able to tolerate such intrusive behaviour.
Similarly, people who come from a culture where time is very valuable will be impatient
with those who come from a culture with an easygoing attitude towards time, where
everything is done in a slow, unhurried way.
a. Cultural diversity
b. Time
c. Space
d. Food
e. Manners
f. Decision making
Overcoming Barriers :
Barriers disrupt communication and interfere with understanding. They must be
overcome if communication has to be effective.
Physical barriers are comparatively easier to overcome. The use of loudspeakers and
microphones can remove the barriers of noise and distance in crowded places like railway
stations. Traffic signals and non-verbal gestures of the traffic policeman remove physical
barriers on the roads. Technological advancement has
helped in reducing the communication gap arising due to time and
distance .It is possible to make an alternative arrangement, should
the technological instruments fail. A back-up plan helps in tidying
over any snag.
Language or Semantic Barriers can be overcome if the sender and the receiver choose
a language which both of them understand very well. Help from a translator or an
interpreter also helps in overcoming the language barrier. Exposure to the target
language and training oneself in the acquisition of skills of the given language too help in
overcoming the language barrier. Language barriers can be avoided by careful study and
accurate use of language. Clarity should be the main objective when using
language. Jargon should be avoided.
Psychological barriers, as also cross-cultural barriers are difficult to overcome, as
they are difficult to identify and even more difficult to address. Even these can be
avoided or reduced by adopting a flexible and open-minded attitude. The ultimate aim is
to build bridges of understanding between people – that is the main aim of
communication. Training oneself to listen to different views , exposing oneself to
different environments help in broadening one‗s outlook and cultivating tolerance to
multiple views. Teaching oneself to listen with empathy helps in making oneself more
open to others ‗perceptions.
While dealing with psychological or cross-cultural barriers the
sender should make it a point to–
(i) Use language that is politically neutral and correct.
(ii) Present views in simple and objective manner
(iii) Focus on the objective of communication
Chapter V
Listening
Importance of listening
1. Listening is the first means of acquiring information
2. Listening is the first means of learning new language
3. Helps to solve problems
4. Helps in framing plans and policies
5. Helps to share information
6. Helps in decision-making
7. Helps to know organization
8. Develops better relations
9. Provides encouragement
Nature of listening process:
Listening is such a routine activity that most people do not even realize that they are poor
listeners, and are, therefore, in need of developing their listening skills. Others may feel
that listening is a very difficult task, perhaps, next to impossible to achieve. But the truth
is that good listening habits can be cultivated, and with practice, much can be achieved.
Understanding the complex process of listening, itself, may help people become good
listeners. Listening involves the following inter-related steps in sequential order:
Receiving-----Attending-----Interpreting-----Remembering-----Evaluating-----Responding
. Receiving: This is a kind of physiological process. The sounds impinge on the listener‗s
ear. It is only when he takes these in that he can go further in the process of getting at the
meaning.
. Attending: The listener has to focus his attention on the .message. to the exclusion of
all other sounds that may be present in the immediate surroundings.
. Interpreting: The sounds have to be interpreted, that is, the listener tries to understand
the message that is being put across against the background of his own values, beliefs,
ideas, expectations, needs, experience and background — and, of course, taking into
account the speaker‗s viewpoint.
. Remembering: This involves storing the message for future reference.
. Evaluating: The listener makes a critical analysis of the information received, judging
whether the message makes sense while separating fact from opinion.
. Responding: The listener gives a verbal or nonverbal response, and takes action
accordingly.
Barriers to listening:
1. Distractions
a. Semantic - The listener is confused about the actual meaning of a word, as
the word has different meanings.
b. Physical - This occurs when, for eg., the air-conditioning system or
microphones fail; or there is noise in the surroundings; or, someone is
constantly tapping on the table with his fingers.
c. Mental - This occurs when the listener makes himself the central character
of his daydreams and forgets the speaker.
2. Faking attention or pretending to listen –
This usually happens when the message consists of material of a difficult or
uninteresting nature. The listener may not want to bother to understand the
message. Sometimes this may happen when he is critical of the speaker‗s looks,
style of speaking, or mannerisms.
3. Defensive listening –
This kind of listening takes place when the speaker‗s views challenge the listener‗s
beliefs.
4. Prejudice – The listener‗s bias, negative attitude, preconceived notions, fears, or
stress adversely affect listening.
5. Constant focus on self - A person‗s ego may also adversely affect his listening.
The Roman playwright, Terence, reveals this aspect of human nature when he
says: .My closest relation is myself. A person may believe that he knows
everything that the speaker is talking about and, therefore, does not need to listen.
6. Information overload - The listener may be exposed to too many words or points
and, therefore, be unable to take in everything. He should learn how to pick up the
important
ones, and discard the rest.
7. The thinking-speaking rate - The speaking rate is 125 – 150 words per minute,
whereas the thinking rate is 400 words per minute. So the listener‗s mind is
moving much faster than the speaker is able to speak. The extra, intervening time,
before the speaker arrives at his next point, is usually spent in shifting one‗s
mental focus, or in day dreaming.
8. Short attention span - The natural attention span for human beings is short. This is
not easy to rectify, except for making a special effort to concentrate and prolong
one‗s attention span.
Listening strategies:
1. Preparation for listening –
The environment must be made conducive to listening. Noise and disturbance can
be kept
out by closing doors, or using a soundproof room. Suitable arrangements for
microphones and stationery should be made in advance. Interruptions must be
prevented. By these means, the physical barriers can be eliminated, and the
listener can focus his attention on the speaker.
2. Background knowledge –
The listener should train himself to listen intelligently, bearing in mind the
speaker, the topic and the situation.
3. Re-organize the material in mind –
The listener should be able to recognize patterns used by the speaker, and should
be able to identify the main / central point, and supporting points; s/he should reorganize the material in his mind according to certain headings so as to facilitate
recall.
4. Focusing on the speaker‘s matter than manner –
The listener should not be prejudiced by the personal or behavioural traits of the
speaker or his style, but should focus on the content, intent, and argument of the
message.
5. Listening actively –
Listening actively also involves being considerate to the speaker and empathising
with him. By adopting an alert listening pose, the listener puts the speaker at his
ease and places him in a better position to formulate and express his ideas. The
listener should have a positive attitude towards a talk, believing that in every talk
there is always at least one point or idea that will be of value and special
significance to him.
6. Listen with complete concentration –
The listener should learn to differentiate between argument and evidence; idea and
example; fact and opinion. He should attempt to pick out and paraphrase the
important points while disregarding unimportant ones.
7. Interaction –
a. Do not interrupt - Allow the speaker to finish what he is saying before you
begin to talk.
b. Do not disturb the speaker by indulging in some undesirable form of
activity, like talking to the person next to you, looking at your watch, or
walking out, or appearing uninterested or distracted.
c. Do not contradict the speaker
d. Do not let your mind move on to anticipate what is going to be said next –
just listen carefully to what the speaker is actually saying. If you are busy
planning your replies, you are likely to miss important points, and make
irrelevant or stupid statements.
e. Adopt an open-minded attitude –
Be open to new ideas, ask questions, seeking clarification of meaning,
ideas, and thoughts; or to gather additional information, or to direct the
flow of the conversation.
f. Avoid passing comments or making remarks when the speaker is speaking
g. Do not let your mind indulge in some other activity
h. Only one person should speak at one time.
8. Patience –
Do not get restless or impatient. Be careful not to lose your temper.
9. Motivation –
The experience of listening is more rewarding if the listener is motivated and
interested. Confidence and trust in the speaker are necessary.
10. Provide positive feedback –
By maintaining eye contact, using proper facial expressions, nodding from time to
time, leaning forward, and so on, you put the speaker at his ease, encourage him
and thus enable him to give of his best.
11. Listen for vocal & no-verbal cues –
By noting the speaker‗s tone of voice or facial expressions, it is possible to get at
his meaning more effectively. Pay attention to what the speaker says as much as to
what he leaves unsaid.
12. Make good use of the time gap between speaking and thinking –
Spend this =extra‗ time reflecting on what the speaker is saying. You could even
jot down points or make brief notes on selected topics. Make a kind of mental
summary, and evaluate what is being said. You may anticipate what the speaker is
going to say next, but it is necessary to listen carefully to find out whether it is
exactly what you expected or whether there is some difference. If there is a
difference, it is important to consider what the difference is, and the reason for it.
13. Introspection –
The listener must honestly examine his existing listening habits, and consider
whether he can improve upon them.
14. Practicing listening skills –
Train yourself to use your listening skills every time you have occasion to listen.
Do not abandon the task of listening, especially if you find it difficult. Listening is
an act of the will as much as a matter of habit. It depends on mental conditioning.
Willingness to make an effort, therefore, matters.
15. Adopting to different communication events –
Effective listening includes the ability to adapt to several communication events,
involving intercultural communication situations. The listener must be aware of
factors like culture, gender, race, status, etc., and not allow them to adversely
affect his listening. In this connection, tolerance, patience, and empathy are
important.
Styles of listening:
1. Empathic listening –
In this case we empathize with the speaker, and understand things from her/his
point of view, allowing her/him the freedom to express her/his emotions.
2. Informational listening –
Here, the aim is to receive information. So the listener pays attention to the
content, and makes decisions regarding the taking of notes; s/he also watches
for related non-verbal cues, asks questions, and focuses on the replies. All this
helps her/ him to assimilate the information.
3. Evaluative listening –
We are exposed to a great deal of material intended to persuade us to accept
the speaker‗s point of view; we need to evaluate what we hear, and note only
certain points that are of interest or use to us.
4. Appreciative listening –
We use this form of listening when we listen to our favourite music or watch
an enjoyable television programme. In these instances, careful listening greatly
enhances pleasure and appreciation.
5. Critical listening –
This is when we listen critically and analytically, carefully considering the
topic of the argument, the intentions of the speaker, his omissions, his point of
view; his credibility and so on.
Business Ethics
What is a 'Business'?
A business is an organization or enterprising entity engaged in commercial, industrial or
professional activities. A company transacts business activities through the production of
a good, offering of a service or retailing of already manufactured products. A business
can be a for-profit entity or a nonprofit organization that operates to fulfill a charitable
mission.
The term business has different meaning depending on the context.::
1. The commercial activities of an individual or a group engaging in some type of
financial transaction. Eg.: bargain between two individuals. You are buying
something in exchange of money.
2. An organization that is formed to operate some type of service or commercial
activity.
a. For Profit organization. Eg: The organisation‘s sole purpose can be to earn
profit and can range from a sole proprietorship to a multinationals
publically traded cooperation.
b. Not-For-Profit business. Eg. Farming.
3. The type of commerce in which someone engages. For eg:
a. Nike is in sports apparel and equipment business.
b. General Motors is in automobile business.
What is Business Ethics?
Business ethics is the study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially
controversial issues, such as corporate governance, insider trading, bribery,
discrimination, corporate social responsibility and fiduciary responsibilities. Law often
guides business ethics, while other times business ethics provide a basic framework
that businesses may choose to follow to gain public acceptance.
Business Ethics:
The system of laws and guidelines by which business professionals and corporations
operate in a fair, legal, and moral fashion.
Business Ethics is a broad topic covering following:
1. Globalization
2. Executive Pay
3. Earnings Management
4. Political Contributions
5. Marketing practices
6. Bribery
7. Tax avoidance
8. Corporate governance
9. Fiduciary responsibilities
10. Corporate Social responsibility
11. Intellectual property
12. Insider trading
13. Unionization
14. Corruption
15. Discrimination
16. Health and Safety
17. Sales practices
18. Privacy
19. Human resource Management
The organization where ethics are followed, trust develops between employees and
management as well as between the public and cooperation.
Thus, Business ethics lead to a more productive workplace.
Importance of Business Ethics
Ethics concern an individual's moral judgements about right and wrong. Decisions taken within
an organisation may be made by individuals or groups, but whoever makes them will be
influenced by the culture of the company. The decision to behave ethically is a moral one;
employees must decide what they think is the right course of action. This may involve rejecting
the route that would lead to the biggest short-term profit.
Businesses around the world are designing and implementing business ethics programs to
address the legal, ethical, social responsibility, and environmental issues they face. By
addressing these issues in a systematic way, enterprises can improve their own business
performance, expand opportunities for growth, and contribute to the development of social
capital in their markets. They can realize specific business benefits, such as:
1. Enhanced reputations and good will
2. Reduced risks and costs
3. Protection from their own employees and agents
4. Stronger competitive positions
5. Expanded access to capital, credit, and foreign investment
6. Increased profits
7. Sustained long-term growth
8. International respect for enterprises and emerging markets Enterprises that
excel in these areas create a climate of excellence for their employees,
shareholders, and communities, and contribute to the economic wellbeing of
their countries.
Ethical behaviour and corporate social responsibility can bring significant benefits
to a business. For example, they may:
 attract customers to the firm's products, thereby boosting sales and profits
 make employees want to stay with the business, reduce labour turnover and
therefore increase productivity
 attract more employees wanting to work for the business, reduce recruitment costs
and enable the company to get the most talented employees
 attract investors and keep the company's share price high, thereby protecting the
business from takeover.
Unethical behaviour or a lack of corporate social responsibility may damage a firm's
reputation and make it less appealing to stakeholders. Profits could fall as a result.
Several factors play a role in the success of a company that are beyond the scope
of financial statements alone. Organizational culture, management philosophy and ethics
in business each have an impact on how well a business performs in the long term. No
matter the size, industry or level of profitability of an organization, business ethics are
one of the most important aspects of long-term success.
Ethics in Leadership
The management team sets the tone for how the entire company runs on a day-to-day
basis. When the prevailing management philosophy is based on ethical practices and
behavior, leaders within an organization can direct employees by example and guide
them in making decisions that are not only beneficial to them as individuals, but also to
the organization as a whole. Building on a foundation of ethical behavior helps create
long lasting positive effects for a company, including the ability to attract and retain
highly talented individuals and building and maintaining a positive reputation within the
community. Running a business in a ethical manner from the top down builds a stronger
bond between individuals on the management team, further creating stability within the
company.
Employee Ethics
When management is leading an organization in an ethical manner, employees follow in
those footsteps. Employees make better decisions in less time with business ethics as a
guiding principle; this increases productivity and overall employee morale. When
employees complete work in a way that is based on honesty and integrity, the whole
organization benefits. Employees who work for a corporation that demands a high
standard of business ethics in all facets of operations are more likely to perform their job
duties at a higher level and are also more inclined to stay loyal to that organization.
Business Ethics Benefits
The importance of business ethics reaches far beyond employee loyalty and morale or the
strength of a management team bond. As with all business initiatives, the ethical
operation of a company is directly related to profitability in both the short and long term.
The reputation of a business from the surrounding community, other businesses and
individual investors is paramount in determining whether a company is a worthwhile
investment. If a company's reputation is less than perfect based on the perception that it
does not operate ethically, investors are less inclined to buy stock or otherwise support its
operations.
With consistent ethical behavior comes increasingly positive public image, and there are
few other considerations as important to potential investors and current shareholders. To
retain a positive image, businesses must be committed to operating on an ethical
foundation as it relates to treatment of employees, respect to the surrounding
environment and fair market practices in terms of price and consumer treatment.
Personal integrity at the workplace
Integrity comes in many forms, but honesty and dependability are two traits that are
expected in most workplace situations. Without responsible behavior, distrust can make a
work environment tense and uncomfortable. A strong work ethic shows co-workers and
clients that you're reliable and take your responsibilities seriously. Polite communication,
respectable behavior and fiscal responsibility also help you stand out as a trustworthy
employee.
1. Work When You're on the Clock
Working diligently when you're on the clock is a clear example of workplace integrity.
Socializing, surfing the Internet, making personal phone calls, texting and frequent
snacking are activities that detract from work time. Saving those activities for break time
will show your boss, co-workers and customers that you work hard when you're on the
clock. The career website Calibrate Coaching recommends honoring your work hours by
not stealing time from your employer. Even if you don't actually clock in and out with a
time card, focusing on your work responsibilities while you're at your desk, work station
or production area will showcase your strong work habits.
2. Follow Company Policies
Abiding by company policies is a powerful way to demonstrate integrity. Cutting
corners and neglecting to follow workplace regulations can lead to mistakes, problems
and even dangerous situations. Your willingness to properly record financial transactions,
safely dispense of hazardous or toxic materials, follow company protocol for dealing with
clients, perform clean-up or set-up procedures and properly maintain equipment shows
others that you're not just looking for the easy way out. Establishing yourself as a
trustworthy worker who submits to company policies shows your boss and co-workers
that you'll faithfully carry out your duties.
3. Respect Co-workers and Build Trust
Respecting those you work with reveals your desire to create a healthy work
environment. Polite communication, appropriate interactions and respect for co-workers'
thoughts and ideas demonstrate your ability to look beyond your own interests to pursue
team-centered work goals. As you deal with co-workers honestly and respectfully, you
establish a level of trust with them. According to Amy Rees Anderson, a contributor to
Forbes magazine, those who trust you will spread the word of that trust to their
associates, and word of your character will spread like wildfire.
4. Exhibit Responsible Behavior
Integrity in the workplace often stems from moral and ethical behavior. Making sure
there's no reason to question your conduct is one of the best ways to prove that you are an
honest and dependable employee. Avoid using company products or equipment for
personal use and submit exact receipts for travel or meal reimbursements. Don't overpromise what you can't provide and strive to meet deadlines. Work productively and
cooperate during company meetings so you don't appear lazy or apathetic, and don't call
in sick if you aren't. By exhibiting responsible behavior, you don't give co-workers or
clients the opportunity to question your integrity.
Computer Ethics
The concept of computer ethics originated in 1950 with the publication of Nobert
Wiener,s book entitles ―The human use of human beings,.
Computer ethics involves a set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers.
The Ten Commandments are as follows:
 Do not use the computer in ways that may harm other people.
Explanation: This commandment says that it is unethical to use a computer to
harm another user. It is not limited to physical injury. It includes harming or
corrupting other users' data or files. The commandment states that it is wrong to
use a computer to steal someone's personal information. Manipulating or
destroying files of other users is ethically wrong. It is unethical to write programs,
which on execution lead to stealing, copying or gaining unauthorized access to
other users' data. Being involved in practices like hacking, spamming, phishing or
cyber bullying does not conform to computer ethics.
 Do not use computer technology to cause interference in other users' work.
Explanation: Computer software can be used in ways that disturb other users or
disrupt their work. Viruses, for example, are programs meant to harm useful
computer programs or interfere with the normal functioning of a computer.
Malicious software can disrupt the functioning of computers in more ways than
one. It may overload computer memory through excessive consumption of
computer resources, thus slowing its functioning. It may cause a computer to
function wrongly or even stop working. Using malicious software to attack a
computer is unethical.
 Do not spy on another person's computer data.
Explanation: We know it is wrong to read someone's personal letters. On the same
lines, it is wrong to read someone else's email messages or files. Obtaining data
from another person's private files is nothing less than breaking into someone's
room. Snooping around in another person's files or reading someone else's
personal messages is the invasion of his privacy. There are exceptions to this. For
example, spying is necessary and cannot be called unethical when it is done
against illegitimate use of computers. For example, intelligence agencies working
on cybercrime cases need to spy on the internet activity of suspects.
 Do not use computer technology to steal information.
Explanation: Stealing sensitive information or leaking confidential information is
as good as robbery. It is wrong to acquire personal information of employees from
an employee database or patient history from a hospital database or other such
information that is meant to be confidential. Similarly, breaking into a bank
account to collect information about the account or account holder is wrong.
Illegal electronic transfer of funds is a type of fraud. With the use of technology,
stealing of information is much easier. Computers can be used to store stolen
information.
 Do not contribute to the spread of misinformation using computer technology.
Explanation: Spread of information has become viral today, because of the
Internet. This also means that false news or rumors can spread speedily through
social networking sites or emails. Being involved in the circulation of incorrect
information is unethical. Mails and pop-ups are commonly used to spread the
wrong information or give false alerts with the only intent of selling products.
Mails from untrusted sources advertising certain products or spreading some hardto-believe information, are not uncommon. Direct or indirect involvement in the
circulation of false information is ethically wrong. Giving wrong information can
hurt other parties or organizations that are affected on that particular theme.
 Refrain from copying software or buying pirated copies. Pay for software
unless it is free.
Explanation: Like any other artistic or literary work, software is copyrighted. A
piece of code is the original work of the individual who created it. It is copyrighted
in his/her name. In case of a developer writing software for the organization she
works for, the organization holds the copyright for it. Copyright holds true unless
its creators announce it is not. Obtaining illegal copies of copyrighted software is
unethical. It is not easy to do such things and in the end it will just be copied
illegally.
 Do not use someone else's computer resources unless authorized to.
Explanation: Multi-user systems have user specific passwords. Breaking into some
other user's password, thus intruding her private space is unethical. It is not ethical
to hack passwords for gaining unauthorized access to a password-protected
computer system. Accessing data that you are not authorized to access or gaining
access to another user's computer without her permission is not ethical. Privacy
will always be applied to such resources and were not supposed to get exposed and
hack in such ways that is not yours.
 It is wrong to claim ownership on a work which is the output of someone else's
intellect.
Explanation: Programs developed by a software developer are her property. If he
is working with an organization, they are the organization's property. Copying
them and propagating them in one's own name is unethical. This applies to any
creative work, program or design. Establishing ownership on a work which is not
yours is ethically wrong. Originality of any software/programs are to be keep safe
and trying to claim ownership will cause a viral disputes.
 Before developing a software, think about the social impact it can have.
Explanation: Looking at the social consequences that a program can have,
describes a broader perspective of looking at technology. A computer software on
release, reaches millions. Software like video games and animations or educational
software can have a social impact on their users. When working on animation
films or designing video games, for example, it is the programmer's responsibility
to understand his target audience/users and the effect it may have on them. For
example, a computer game for kids should not have content that can influence
them negatively. Similarly, writing malicious software is ethically wrong. A
software developer/development firm should consider the influence their code can
have on the society at large.
 In using computers for communication, be respectful and courteous with the
fellow members.
Explanation: The communication etiquette we follow in the real world applies to
communication over computers as well. While communicating over the Internet,
one should treat others with respect. One should not intrude others' private space,
use abusive language, make false statements or pass irresponsible remarks about
others. One should be courteous while communicating over the web and should
respect others' time and resources. Also, one should be considerate with a novice
computer user.
Business Ethics and Media:
Care must also be taken when making statements to the media that information given is
correct and not misleading. Information which, if made public would be likely to have
material effect on the share price or about certain transactions such as mergers,
acquisitions or disposals or transactions with related parties is subject to specific rules.
Such matters should be referred to the relevant Regional General Counsel. Enquiries
from the media should be referred to company media relations experts and statements
should only be made by designated spokespersons.
Only authorised spokespersons are permitted to represent the company in media or
investor relations.
Social media and Business Ethics
Social media is an umbrella term used to describe social interaction through a suite of
technology based tools, many of which are internet based. This includes, but is not
limited to, internet forums,
Networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and GooglePlus, webcasts, and
blogs.
Social media exhibits unique characteristics when compared t traditional media forms.
Its speed and scope means that once content is publish edit is available instantaneously,
to a potentially global audience. Social media tools tend to be free or available at a very
low cost relative to other forms of media and do not require users to have much
technical knowledge. This allows larger numbers of individuals to access and publish
material than with traditional media forms.
Social media is usually interactive in a way that traditional media is not, so users can
comment on and edit published material, making it difficult to control content. Social
media blurs private/public boundaries when individuals
personalinformationandopinionsenterthepublicdomain.Theboundariesbetweenpersonala
ndworklifealsobecomeblurredascompaniesmakeuseofsocial media (originally designed
for personal use) for business purposes, and likewise employees access personalities
while at work. A 2011DLA Piper survey found social media is used for personal and
work related activities by 95% of employees.
These unique characteristics of social media pose ethical challenges for business, through
employees use of social media on behalf of the company, as well as their personal use.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to
sustainable development by delivering economics, social and environmental benefits for
all stakeholders.
CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and
implemented differs greatly.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to
sustainable development by delivering economic, socil and environmental benefits for all
stakeholders.
CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and
implemented differs greatly for each company and country. Moreover, CSR is a very
broad concept that addresses many and various topics such as human rights, corporate
governance, health and safety, environmental effects, working conditions and
contribution to economic development. Whatever the definition is, the purpose of CSR is
to drive change towards sustainability.
Examples of Corporate Social Responsibility in India
Tata Group
Tata Group in India has a range of CSR projects, most of which are community
improvement programs. For example, it is a leading provider of maternal and child health
services, family planning, and has provided 98 percent immunization in Jamshedpur. The
company also endorses sports as a way of life. It has established a football academy,
archery academy, and promotes sports among employees. It offers healthcare services all
over the country with programs like rural health development.
Tata Group also has an organized relief program in case of natural disasters, including
long-term treatment and rebuilding efforts. It did laudable work during the Gujarat
earthquakes and Orissa floods. It also supports education, with over 500 schools, and also
is a benefactor of the arts and culture. It has done abundant work in improving the
environment and local populations around its industries.
Aptech
Aptech a leading education player with a global presence that has played a broad and
continued role in encouraging and nurturing education throughout the country since its
inception. As a global player with complete solutions-providing capabilities, Aptech has
a long history of participating in community activities. It has, in association with leading
NGOs, provided computers at schools, education to the deprived, and training and
awareness-camps.
Infosys
Infosys is aggressively involved in a variety of community growth programs. In 1996, the
company created the Infosys Foundation as a not-for-profit trust to which it contributes
up to 1 percent of profits after tax every year. Moreover, the Education and Research
Department at Infosys also works with employee volunteers on community development
projects.
The management team at Infosys continues to set examples in the area of corporate
citizenship and has involved itself vigorously in key national bodies. They have taken
initiatives to work in the areas of research and education, community service, rural
outreach programs, employment, healthcare for the poor, education, arts and culture, and
welfare activities undertaken by the Infosys Foundation.
Mahindra & Mahindra
At Mahindra & Mahindra, The K. C. Mahindra Education Trust was established in 1953
with the purpose of promoting education. Its vision is to renovate the lives of people in
India through education and financial assistance across age groups and across income
strata. The K. C. Mahindra Education Trust undertakes a number of education plans,
which make a difference to the lives of worthy students. The Trust has provided more
than Rs. 7.5 crore in the form of grants, scholarships and loans. It promotes education
mostly by the way of scholarships. The Nanhi Kali (children) project has over 3,300
children under it and the company aims to increase the number to 10,000 in the next two
years by reaching out to the underprivileged children, especially in rural areas.

Teleconferencing Teleconferencing means meeting through a telecommunications medium. It is a generic term for linking people between two or more locations by electronics. There are at least six types of teleconferencing: audio, audiographic, computer, video, business television (BTV), and distance education. The methods used differ in the technology, but common factors contribute to the shared definition of teleconferencing:   Use a telecommunications channel Link people at multiple locations Interactive to provide two-way communications Dynamic to require users' active participation   Interactive Technologies The new systems have varying degrees of interactivity - the capability to talk back to the user. They are enabling and satellites, computers, teletext, viewdata, cassettes, cable, and videodiscs all fit the same emerging pattern. They provide ways for individuals to step out of the mass audiences and take an active role in the process by which information is transmitted. The new technologies are de-massified so that a special message can be exchanged with each individual in a large audience. They are the opposite o mass media and shift control to the user. Many are asynchronous and can send or receive a message at a time convenient for individuals without being in communication at the same time. This overcomes time as a variable affecting communication. A video, data and voice delivery system reduces travel costs. When the material is retrieved and saved to a video tape or disc, the material can be used at anytime or anyplace. As more interactive technologies emerge, the value of being an independent learner will increase. Research shows that learning from new technologies is as effective as traditional methods. Large groups are cost-effective and everyone gets the same information.   Types of Teleconferences Audio Teleconference: Voice-only; sometimes called conference calling. Interactively links people in remote locations via telephone lines. Audio bridges tie all lines together. Meetings can be conducted via audio conference. Preplanning is necessary which includes naming a chair, setting an agenda, and providing printed materials to participants ahead of time so that they can be reviewed. Distance learning can be conducted by audio conference. In fact, it is one of the most underutilized, yet cost effective methods available to education. Instructors should receive training on how to best utilize audio conferences to augment other forms of distance learning. Audiographics Teleconference: Uses narrowband telecommunications channels to transmit visual information such as graphics, alpha-numerics, documents, and video pictures as an adjunct to voice communication. Other terms are desk-top computer conferencing and enhanced audio. Devices include electronic tablets/boards, freeze-frame video terminals, integrated graphics systems (as part of personal computers), Fax, remote-access microfiche and slide projectors, optical graphic scanners, and voice/data terminals. Audiographics can be used for meetings and distance learning. Computer Teleconference: Uses telephone lines to connect two or more computers and modems. Anything that can be done on a computer can be sent over the lines. It can be synchronous or asynchronous. An example of an asychronous mode is electronic mail. Using electronic mail (E-Mail), memos, reports, updates, newsletters can be sent to anyone on the local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). Items generated on computer which are normally printed and then sent by facsimile can be sent by E-Mail. Computer conferencing is an emerging area for distance education. Some institutions offer credit programs completely by computer. Students receive texts and workbooks via mail. Through common files assigned to a class which each student can assess, teachers upload syllabi, lectures, grades and remarks. Students download these files, compose their assignment and remarks off-line, then upload them to the common files. Students and instructors are usually required to log on for a prescribed number of days during the week. Interaction is a large component of the students' grades. Through computers, faculty, students and administrators have easy access to one another as well as access to database resources provided through libraries. The academic resources of libraries and special resources can be accessed such as OCLC, ERIC, and Internet. Administrators can access student files, retrieve institutional information from central repositories such as district or system offices, government agencies, or communicate with one another. Other resources can be created such as updates on state or federal legislation. Video Teleconference: Combines audio and video to provide voice communications and video images. Can be one-way video/two-way audio, or two-way video/two-way audio. It can display anything that can be captured by a TV camera. The advantage is the capability to display moving images. In two-way audio/video systems, a common application is to show people which creates a social presence that resembles face-to-face meetings and classes and enables participants to see the facial expressions and physical demeanor of participants at remote sites. Graphics are used to enhance understanding. There are three basic systems: freeze frame, compressed, and full-motion video. Video conferencing is an effective way to use one teacher who teaches to a number of sites. It is very cost effective for classes which may have a small number of students enrolled at each site. In many cases, video conferencing enables the institution or a group of institutions to provide courses which would be canceled due to low enrollment or which could not be supported otherwise because of the cost of providing an instructor in an unusual subject area. Rural areas benefit particularly from classes provided through video conferencing when they work with a larger metropolitan institution that has full-time faculty. Through teleconferencing, institutions are able to serve all students equitably.   Why Use a Teleconference? Videoconferencing increases efficiency and results in a more profitable use of limited resources. It is a very personal medium for human issues where face-to-face communications are necessary. When you can see and hear the person you are talking to on a television monitor, they respond as though you were in the same room together. It is an effective alternative to travel which can easily add up to weeks of non-productive time each year. With videoconferencing, you never have to leave the office. Documents are available, and experts can be on hand. A crisis that might take on major proportions if you are out of town, can be handled because you're on the job. Videoconferencing maximizes efficiency because it provides a way to meet with several groups in different locations, at the same time. As the limited resource of funding has decreased, limited resources now include instructors, parking spaces and buildings. Students now include time as a limited resources. Teleconferencing enables institutions to share facilities and instructors which will increase our ability to serve students.   Move Information - Not People Electronic delivery is more efficient than physically moving people to a site, whether it is a faculty member or administrator. Save Time: Content presented by one or many sources is received in many places simultaneously and instantly. Travel is reduced resulting in more productive time. Communication is improved and meetings are more efficient. It adds a competitive edge that face-to-face meetings do not. Lower Costs: Costs (travel, meals, lodging) are reduced by keeping employees in the office, speeding up product development cycles, improving performance through frequent meetings with timely information. Accessible: Through any origination site in the world. Larger Audiences: More people can attend. The larger the audience, the lower the cost per person. Larger Audiences: More people can attend. The larger the audience, the lower cost per person. Adaptable: Useful for business, associations, hospitals, and institutions to discuss, inform, train, educate or present. Flexible: With a remote receive or transmit truck, a transmit or receive site can be located anywhere. Security: Signals can be encrypted (scrambled) when it is necessary. Encryption prevents outside viewers. Unity: Provides a shared sense of identity. People feel more a part of the group...more often. Individuals or groups at multiple locations can be linked frequently. Timely: For time-critical information, sites can be linked quickly. An audio or point-to-point teleconference can be convened in three minutes. Interactive: Dynamic; requires the user's active participation. It enhances personal communication. When used well for learning, the interactivity will enhance the learning and the teaching experience.   Satellite Communications Long distance telephone calls, national and international televised sporting events, and cable movie channels operate via satellites. Satellites have been used for years. Geostationary Orbit: British physicist and science fiction writer, Sir Arthur C. Clarke, invented satellite communication in his 1954 paper Wireless World, which explained this east-west orbit, 22,300 miles above the equator; three satellites based in this orbit could provide world-wide communications. Today, many satellites are arrayed in the Clarke belt. To earth stations, they appear fixed in space. Satellite Footprint: In geostationary orbit, communications satellites have direct line-of-sight to almost half the earth - a large "footprint" which is a major advantage. A signal sent via satellite can be transmitted simultaneously to every U.S. city. Many downlinks can be aimed at one satellite and each can receive the same program; this is called point to multipoint. Transponders: Via an uplink, video, audio or data signals can be transmitted to a satellite transponder. There may be up to 40 transponders per satellite; each can amplify and relay signals to earth which are picked up by earth stations. C/Ku-Band: Domestic communications satellites operate on two frequency ranges designated C- and Ku-band. Each requires specific electronic equipment. C-band is less expensive; operates at 4 kHz. Ku-band operates at 12 kHz. Some teleconferences are broadcast on both bands. Receivers: Convert satellite signals into channels viewed (one at a time) on a TV monitor; designed to tune-in the format, bandwidth, and audio sub-carrier. Programs broadcast in code (encryption) are decoded at receive sites. Basic Receivers: Lowest cost; limited (or manual) channel tuning capability; may use fixed antennas. Multi-Format Receivers: Most versatile; adjusts for all broadcast formats; receive any satellite video program in six or more bandwidth selections, and two agile audio subcarrier switches; usually a motorized systems. Fixed Position System: Low cost systems limited to reception from one satellite and one band. Motorized System: Receives programs on different satellites by adjusting the dish position. Automated Systems: Microprocessor controlled for instant movement to satellites (positions stored in memory).   International Satellite Alpha Lyracom Space Communications/Pan American Satellite is the world's first private international satellite system. PAS-1 carries many specialized communications services including full and part-time video, low and high speed data, broadcast data and radio and business television to over 70 countries on three continents. It can be seen (received) by a 2.4 meter antenna. It has 18 C-band and six Ku-band transponders with a shared capacity that increases traffic. PanAmSat handles all phases of an international broadcast as compared to INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization) where the customer must book the domestic and foreign half circuits and pay for each downlink. INTELSAT was established primarily to handle the PTT telephone transmissions, while PanAmSat was established to be easily accessible by distance education institutions and private enterprise. The FCC licenses PanAmSattransportables for years, as compared to the FCC special temporary authority (STA) license for INTELSAT. PanAmSattransportables can uplink from any location without a special license. PanAmSat writes yearly contracts with customers. It does not charge for multiple downlinks. Time on PAS-1 books from between $960 to $2,400 per hour depending on the volume discount based on yearly usage. To book time on PAS-1, call the day-of-air or future event number, with the origination site, uplink, downlink sites, and conference time. PanAmSat handles the rest. By booking time through satellite brokers (EDS, PSN, Satellite Management International) ad hoc users can reduce time costs. PanAmSat is negotiating for three more satellites to be in place in 1994-95.   Compressed Video Digital compression means that the codec compresses the video signal or data to a fraction of its original size so that the data rate is appropriate to transmit over low-cost terrestrial telephone lines or on a fraction of a satellite transponder. Codecs (COder/DECorder) compress the video and audio signal allowing it to be transmitted in a smaller bandwidth which reduces the cost of the transmission. Standard transmission rates for video teleconferencing are multiples of 64 Kbs up to the T1 rate of 1.54 Mbs. Some codecs allow speed selection to match the circuit used. The speed selected is based on the content. When close to full motion video is needed, higher rates are needed. T1 circuits connect PBXs to the telephone company's central office and can carry up to 24 voice channels at a lower cost than 24 voice circuits. A 56 Kb or 64 KBS codec operates in the range of one voice channel. A standard video signal digitized at 90 Mbs is comprised of about 1400 voice channels.   Freeze Frame Video Freeze frame video uses telephone channels to transmit video information. Because of the narrow bandwidth, the image takes a few moments to reach the receive site where it appears on the TV as a still picture. The advantages are lower costs and flexibility in linking multiple sites. Slow scan systems are similar to freeze frame and the terms are often used synonymously. Freeze frame technologies include a range of features; analog, digital, monochrome or color pictures, resolutions, transmission speeds, and extra memory. Newer models provide multiple send times to select the resolution and transmission time through digital circuits and compression coding. Some units transmit video information in digital format over a data circuit which reduces the transmission time to about nine seconds to a 56 kilobit link. Because of the faster transmission rates, many new freeze frame applications use data circuits. Compressed video (near motion) and full-motion video differ; compressed video uses compression techniques to reduce channel bandwidth; images may not look as natural and may blur or lose background resolution. The advantage is that the significant reduction in bandwidth reduces costs. Compressed video uses a telephone data circuit - currently a T1 carrier or 1.5 or 3 megabits - to transmit video, voice and data. It reduces video information (NTSC Standard-color video) with a compression technique to eliminate redundant information and reduce the 100 million bits signal to 1.5 or 3 million bits. Digital video signals are broken down into thousands of elements called pixels. Between frames, many are the same. A codec takes advantage of this duplication by sending complete information on the first pixel and a brief code to repeat the values. This reduces the information sent and the bandwidth required. Interframe coding for conditional replenishment compares the changes between two frames and transmits changes. Motion compensation predicts changes between frames and transmits only the difference. Software holds the compression algorithm which can be upgraded. The CCITT Px64 international standard requires rates to operate in multiples of 64.   Full-Motion Video Standard TV signals are broadcast using a significant amount of the bandwidth of wideband channels - 4 to 6 megahertz for coloranalog - to send video, voice and data. Because of the large channel capacity, it transmits a picture with the full motion and resolution of broadcast TV. The bandwidth used is the digital equivalent of 80 Mbps or more which corresponds to a full satellite transponder or 1820 voice phone lines. This translates into high costs for signal transmission.   Compression for One-Way Video Consumer application for compressed video systems use higher rates than two-way compressed video to achieve near-broadcast quality video image. A digitally compressed video signal can be broadcast over 1/20 of a regular transponder channel reducing costs to under $200 per hour. One use of the technology is SKY PIX, a pay per view movie service based on a Compression Labs, Inc. codec marketed by NW Star Scan which offers viewers a choice of up to 40 movies. The picture quality is better than VHS transmission quality. Scientific Atlanta offers PrimeStar, a competing entertainment service, which transmits at a data rate of 4 to 4.5 Mbs. Using the same technology, they will offer B-Mac users compatibility with compressed video users at a lower price because the transmission uses a fraction of a regular transponder channel. Compression Labs, Inc. has recently introduced the SpectrumSaver System which can broadcast a digital signal to a fraction of a satellite transponder. Because up to 15 or 18 signals can be carried on a transponder (depending upon the system configuration), the cost of satellite time is significantly reduced. The National Technological University (NTU) is using the system, as well as ITESM in Mexico. Each institution reports a savings of $1 million in satellite time during the first year of operation. The system is entirely digital. Scientific Atlanta is about to bring its new digital satellite system to the market. This system is an upgrade to an existing Scientific Atlanta analog satellite system. As such, users will be able to broadcast in either analog or digital format.   Fiber Optic Systems The transmission of voice, video and data by light wave signals inside a thin, transparent glass fiber cable, is providing more choices for telecommunications users and is rapidly bringing digital communication to the home and office. One pair of fibers can carry up to 10,000 telephone calls simultaneously. Advantages: transmission clarity, speed, accuracy, security, and volume. Disadvantages: Construction, installation and maintenance costs, but they are declining. from "The Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide," by Carla Lane

 

Demonstration
Introduction
In marketing, a product demonstration (or demo for short) is a promotion where a
product is demonstrated to potential customers. The goal of such a demonstration is
to introduce customers to the product in hopes of getting them to purchase that item.
Demonstrations can also be used during other types of presentations. Some people
term a presentation as a demonstration, a lecture, or welcoming speech.
With the help of visual aids, a demonstration can serve as an entertaining way to
show the audience something. In addition, props, models, and prototypes can be
used to provide concrete visual support for information contained in the speech.
Using Visual Aids to Demonstrate
The word “prop” comes from the term “theatrical property," which refers to objects
used by actors in a play. Anything can be used as a prop: a chair, a walking cane, a
book, a painting: any physical object that is not part of the set or the costuming, and
which is actively used by the actors, is considered a prop.
Props, when used as dramatic elements in a presentation, can be used in many
situations other than theatrical performances. During a presentation or demo, props
can be used to support ideas. The well-timed use of a well-chosen prop can have
tremendous impact on a presentation.
Props can add impact in a number of ways:
• Props can make a point concrete. If, for example, your presentation is about a
specific electronic device, having a prototype present will make the idea of the
benefits it provides more concrete than simply explaining or showing images of
on a slide.
• Props can have an emotional impact.
• Props can be effective metaphors.
• Props can inject humor into a presentation.
• Props focus the audience’s attention and interest. Because props are not widely
used in presentations today, when a speaker does bring them out, the rhythm of
the presentation is changed and the audience is visually engaged.
• Props can be memorable. To show how effective props can be, we've included
an example recounted by Chip and Dan Heath.
Consider how model volcanos are used in science classes. These models are not
only used to explain ideas about volcanoes, but also are intended to capture the
attention and interest of the audience. Models, like props, can provide a concrete
instance of an idea contained in the presentation, giving the audience a visual
demonstration that increases the likelihood that the information will be retained.
No matter what visual aid is used, whether props, models, or prototypes, the goal is
to provide further support for an idea. In addition, physical demonstrations have the
advantage of asking the audience to engage the speech in a different way than by
simply listening to information. Providing a visual representation of an idea can be an
effective way to clarify and enhance a presentation.

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The Importance of Face-to-Face Communication in the
Modern Workforce
I recently had the privilege of traveling to a remote part of northern Nebraska to
interview the chairman of the Ponca Tribe of Nebraska for a Lifesize case study. We
first met over an audio-only conference call since the chairman was traveling
between locations and couldn’t connect over video. Between the spotty connection
and not being able to see the nonverbal cues, I finished the call feeling disconnected
— like we were not on the same page. Contrast that to our second video conference
call where we spoke face to face, and it felt like I was meeting the chairman for the
first time. By being able to see him I had a better understanding of what he was
trying to communicate, and it began to foster a relationship between us. This
connection made the in-person interview more personal and helped me tell the
Ponca Tribe of Nebraska’s story in a meaningful way.
What is face-to-face communication?
Face-to-face communication is the distinction of being able to see the other party or
parties in a conversation. It allows for a better exchange of information since both
speaker and listener are able to see and interpret body language and facial
expressions. Face-to-face communication doesn’t have to be done by people in the
same physical space; the benefits can also be achieved over a video conference call
or a more informal video chat.
5 Benefits of face-to-face communication through video conferencing
When meeting in person isn’t an option, video conferencing provides a great
alternative. The face-to-face connection allows you to be present and engaged in the
meeting, regardless of your physical location.
1. Keep remote workers in the loop
It’s easy to feel left out when you work remotely, especially if most of your team
works together in the same office. Video conferencing brings remote workers face to
face with in-office employees to collaborate globally and ensure the entire team is
working together as one unit. Video conferencing also has the unique ability to bring
a human connection to every interaction so remote workers feel connected to the
rest of their team.
2. Boost overall productivity
Gather remote and in-office employees together in the same virtual meeting room, at
the same time for regularly scheduled meetings and quick, impromptu meetings for
better communication. The face-to-face interaction helps build a collaborative
environment that inspires and energizes employees to participate in meetings and be
more productive.
3. Reduce travel expenses
Sometimes gathering everyone in one location just isn’t feasible. It can take a
significant amount of time for attendees to get to a meeting, not to mention the cost
of travel, food and hotel accommodations. Video conferencing is an effective way to
meet face to face while saving time and travel costs.
4. Improve communication reliability
Video conferencing provides a fast and secure way to communicate with your entire
team face to face. Many companies are even transitioning into video-first
organizations, meaning they use video conferencing as the first line of
communication and fall back to audio or email only when needed. The improved
reliability of video conferencing ensures that your entire message is communicated
as intended and not left to misunderstandings or misinterpretations.
5. Improve value and reduce redundancy
When researching the total cost of ownership (TCO) of a collaboration suite, many
companies are unaware of just how much is being spent on all of the different
collaboration tools across an organization. Lifesize offers an all-in-one video
conferencing solution that includes video and audio conferencing, screen sharing,
chat, meeting recording, whiteboarding and event live streaming to support all of the
ways your teams communicate and connect.
How face-to-face communication improves business
In the digital age of smartphones, social media, texts, emails and instant messages,
communicating has become faster and easier than ever, but for all the
advancements in technology, nothing can quite replace the impact of face-to-face
communications in the workplace.
Read nonverbal cues
Studies show that as much as 93% of communication is nonverbal. That’s why
having the ability to see the people you are speaking to and interpret their reactions
is so important. When presenting in a meeting you can gauge a person’s
understanding and interest in your presentation by observing their facial expressions,
posture and gestures. If they are fiddling with their pen or checking their phone, you
may need to adjust your tone of voice to capture their attention. Likewise, if
coworkers are actively nodding their heads and smiling, it is clear they are engaged
and understand what you’re trying to communicate.
Enhance productivity
Miscommunication is one of the major causes of inefficiency in the workplace. Many
of these issues can be attributed to digital communications and the various ways
they can be interpreted. Imagine trying to explain an intricate project in an email and
then spending the whole day fielding questions. Instead, you can clearly explain the
entire project, get feedback and answer all questions in one face-to-face meeting.
This ensures everyone is on the same page, allowing meeting participants to hear all
instructions, feedback, questions and answers at the same time.
Increase credibility
Trust isn’t built over text messages or emails. It’s built through face to-face
connections, making eye contact and interpreting body language. This is especially
true when you’re meeting someone for the first time. Face-to-face communication
allows the other person to see how your actions align with your words and enhances
your credibility.
Build relationships
It’s far easier to build stronger relationships face to face. Cold calling on the phone
or through email is not very personal. The best way to “warm up” a prospect and
help build a relationship is to connect with them in a face to face conversation. It
provides a feel of friendliness that, in turn, boosts the success of your business
relationships.2:31
Conclusion
The importance of face-to-face communication is often undervalued in organizations
because it’s difficult to measure, but its power in shaping company culture, team
engagement and sales outcomes should not be underestimated. When meeting in
person isn’t an option, video conferencing allows you to still be present and engaged
in the meeting regardless of your physical location.

:
Why Press Conferences is Important for Business
organizations?
Press conferences are organized by business organizations to make important
announcements directly to the press and media. Although called press conferences, they
actually cover print as well as electronic media.
The objective of a press conference being dissemination of information, it would be
advantageous to invite all major newspapers, journals, radio and television channels and
even website/Internet agencies. Formal invitations are sent out for the press conference
well in advance, indicating the time and venue of the conference.
The nature of announcement to be made and the main person who will be addressing the
press and media are also indicated in the invitation. Care is taken to address such
invitations to the right persons—reporters, editors, etc.—dealing with the subject.
Businesses organizing press conferences should necessarily ensure that the subject
matter of the conference is important enough to warrant a direct physical presence of
media representatives. Otherwise, the invitation for the conference may not elicit much
response.
Press conferences should be avoided if the purpose can be achieved by a press release.
Depending upon the perceived importance of the announcements, media houses will
decide who will participate—editors or senior reporters or just any representative.
Press conferences are convened by larger business establishments to make important
announcements like annual results, major launches, mergers and acquisitions (M&A),
overseas acquisitions, major ownership and organizational changes.
Since every business organization expects a high level of media response and attendance
at the conference, the timing of the conference should be convenient to a majority of the
media representatives.
Normally, early morning and late evening sessions are not convenient. Needless to add,
normal courtesies like lunch, refreshments, writing pads, pens, etc., are provided. It is
also desirable to provide a write-up on the subject matter of announcements, especially
when technical or financial details are to be covered.
Press conferences have to be addressed by the CEOs, directors and other top
management functionaries. At the end of the announcements, question-and-answer
sessions are held so that media representatives may seek further clarifications.
In sum, well-attended press conferences help the business reach out to the larger public
through media coverage. Like press releases, when press conferences are held before
evening, participants are able to ensure its coverage the very next day or at the earliest
opportunity.
Let us now look at the step by step approach to organizing press conferences:
1. Make sure that the announcement is of sufficient importance to the press and the
media so that the media representatives find it worthwhile to attend the meet. What can
be covered by just the press release need not be announced through a press meet. There
should be good reasons for convening the press meet.
2. Choose the day, time and venue that generally suit the media persons. Avoid holidays
and Sundays which are not working days. Similarly, avoid early morning and late
evening timings that may not be convenient to a majority of them.
If possible, try to reschedule your meet if there is any major event already scheduled
around that time. The venue too should be conveniently located and easily accessible.
3. Send out written formal invitations by courier or e-mail well in advance and make sure
it is addressed to the right person. Also, remind the media persons on the day of the
press meet and request them to attend.
4. Press meets are generally addressed by the chief executive officer or the head of an
institution and the importance attached to them is quite high. Important
announcements carry a high degree of credibility when they are made by the heads of
institutions and people in very senior positions participate.
5. It is important to stick to the timing and start the conference on schedule. It is not fair
to keep the media waiting and waste their time. On any given day, they normally have
numerous such engagements.
6. At the appointed time, there is a brief welcome and the announcements begin. The
presentation or address is made orally. It is now very common to see that such oral
presentations are accompanied by audio- visuals or power point presentations. Power
point presentations with appropriate charts, graphs and pictures add value to the
announcements and make it easy for the media persons to absorb the details .The formal
announcement or presentation is always followed
by a question and answer session. This ensures that media representatives get an
opportunity to seek further details and get their doubts clarified.
7. It is necessary to provide a hard copy of the presentation or a write- up on the details
of the announcements. This will ensure that the facts and figures are correctly
understood and reported.
8. Some of the press persons and television representatives come with their cameras and
camerapersons, and proper arrangements need be made to accommodate them.
9. It goes without saying that as a matter of courtesy to the invitees, refreshments and
lunch are provided at such press conferences. Public relations departments of large
organizations thus need to follow a methodical approach in organizing well-attended and
effective press meets.
Like press releases, press meets too are a very cost effective method of getting extensive
media coverage. What we need to emphasize, however, is the tremendous power of the
media and hence, care needs be taken to ensure that absolutely nothing goes wrong.
Press meets have to be addressed with tact, understanding and patience.
After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Meaning of
Rumours 2. Causes of Rumours 3. Effects 4. Management.
Meaning of Rumours:
Rumour is an “instinctual behaviour” arising at the workplace usually involving
unverified information of uncertain origin transmitted by word of mouth. It arises in
grapevine communication and usually spreads unauthentic information though,
however, sometimes, the information may be true and accurate.
Rumour is information, often a mixture of truth and untruth, told by one person to
another. It is a gossip or common talk especially about the personal or private affairs of
others.
While gossip forms one of the oldest and common means of spreading and sharing facts
and views, it introduces errors and other variations into the information transmitted.
Gossip also usually carries implications that the news transmitted is of personal or trivial
nature. Some people commonly understand gossip as spreading of rumour and
misinformation.
Causes of Rumours:
Rumours originate because of the following reasons:
1. Poor communication system:
A poor communication system where people do not openly share formal information
often leads to spreading of rumours. People get information from unauthenticated
sources and spread it like wild fire.
2. Pressurise the management:
When employees want to pressurise management to accept their demands, they may
spread false information in the organisation in the hope to enter into dialogue with the
management.
3. Malintentions of employees:
Employees who are not committed to the organisation spread wrong information to
cause harm to it.
Effects of Rumours:
Rumours are harmful for the organisation and employees.
Spreading of rumours can lead to the following:
(1) It can build a sense of community with shared interests and information.
(2) It can entertain and divert participants in gossip-sessions.
(3) It can develop various types of stories not related to facts.
(4) It can build structures of social accountability.
(5) It can promote mutual social grooming. People gossip at the workplace, waste their
time and deviate from organisational goals.
(6) It results in loss of productivity and time.
(7) There is loss of trust and morale.
(8) It increases anxiety among employees as rumours circulate without any clear
information as to what is fact and what is not.
(9) It grows divisiveness among employees as people “take sides”. People form groups
and promote the group goals.
(10) It hurts the feelings and reputations of people high in the hierarchy.
(11) It obstructs career advancement opportunities of the gossipers as they are perceived
as unprofessional.
(12) It increases labour turnover as good employees leave the company due to unhealthy
work atmosphere.
Management of Rumours:
As rumours are harmful for the organisation, management must deal with them
effectively.
The following measures help in overcoming the effects of
rumours:
(1) As soon as management senses rumour in the organisation, it should identify its
cause and remove it. It is always better to remove the cause of rumour rather than cure
once it begins in the organisation. (Prevention is better than cure.)
(2) Managers should discuss facts with employees, interact face-to-face, remove their
grievances and avoid spreading of false information.
(3) A strong communication system can help to reduce rumours. Repeated rumours may
lead to confirmation of that information. Managers should spread true information in
writing before the rumours are repeated.
(4) Union leaders are the mediators between management and workers. Managers
should seek their help to reduce rumours in the organisation.
Monday, 6 October 2014
MEANING NATURE AND SCOPE OF ORAL
COMMUNICATION
Meaning Of Oral Communication
The oral communication skills, holds great importance in interacting properly with people. The
communication process which is carried out by means of spoken words is referred to as oral
communication. In today's world, development of different media has led to the communication
process to take place by different means such as telephones, teleconferences and video
conferences. Face-to-face meetings and speeches were the main forms of communication in earlier
times. Effective listening in the workplace is important just like speaking.
Oral communication is the form of verbal
communication, which conveys the message
from the sender to the receiver through the
stated word. In other
words, communication with the help of
spoken words is called oral communication.
It is essential at every stage of our social
and business dealings.
Oral communication is a two-way process,
as it provides a clear insight about the
meaning to the message, and the message
transmitted and the feedback is immediate.
We communicate orally with our family,
friends, in meetings, committees,
conferences, over the telephone, radio,
public, etc.
DEFINITIONS OF ORAL
COMMUNICATION
Oral communication describes
any type of inter-action that
makes use of spoken words.
Oral communication implies
communication through mouth.
 Oral communication includes
individuals conversing with
each other, be it direct
conversation or telephonic
conversation.
Some more definition of oral
communication
Meaning Of Oral Communication
 The oral communication skills, holds great importance in interacting properly with people. The
communication process which is carried out by means of spoken words is referred to as oral
communication. In today's world, development of different media has led to the
communication process to take place by different means such as telephones,
teleconferences and video conferences. Face-to-face meetings and speeches were the main
forms of communication in earlier times. Effective listening in the workplace is important
just like speaking.
 The study of oral communication considers the process as essential to facilitate understanding
between the speaker and the audience. Thus, Therefore, oral communication is understood
as that dynamic and systematic process of sharing meaning and understanding the
meaning through verbal and non-verbal exchange between individuals in interaction within
a given context.
," Herta A. Murphy , Jane Thomas wrote in their book Effective Business Communications. "Knowing
the content of the functional areas of business is important, but to give life to those ideas—in
meetings or in solo presentations—demands an effective oral presentation
Nature and Characteristics of
Oral Communication
Oral communication does not require
much planning. It requires appropriate
Para-linguistic features like tone, pitch,
register, facial expressions, gestures and
body language. Effective oral
communication depends on purpose of
the message.
 
For oral communication to be effective, it
should be clear, relevant, tactful in
phraseology and tone, concise, and
informative. Presentations or
conversations that bear these hallmarks
can be an invaluable tool in ensuring
business health and growth. Unclear,
inaccurate, or inconsiderate business
communication, on the other hand, can
waste valuable time, alienate employees
or customers, and destroy goodwill
toward management or the overall
business.
The importance of oral communication in business are discussed below:
 Oral communication should be used because it is simple, faster, informal, more direct
and more personal. It saves more time and creates efficiency.
 In oral communication, there are no formalities of using pen, paper, stamps, etc. and
waiting endlessly for the response. Thus, even most personal and confidential matters
can be placed before the receiver in a simple and direct way.
Scope of oral
communication
Scope means the possibility of
any particular subject in a
particular field.
It can be understood by
dividing in two parts:
➢Internal (within
the organization)
➢ External (outside the
organization)
Scope within the organization
The types of oral communication commonly
used within an organization include staff
meetings, personal discussions, presentations,
telephone discourse, and informal
conversation.
Scope outside the organization

Oral	communication	with
those	outside	of	the

organization might take the
form of face-to-face
meetings, telephone calls,
speeches, teleconferences,
or videoconferences.
Scope within the
organization
The study of oral communication considers the
process as essential to facilitate understanding
between the speaker and the audience. Thus,
Therefore, oral communication is understood
as that dynamic and systematic process of sharing
meaning and understanding the meaning through
verbal and non-verbal exchange between
individuals in interaction within a given context.
," Herta A. Murphy , Jane Thomas wrote in their
book Effective Business Communications. "Knowing
the content of the functional areas of business is
important, but to give life to those ideas—in
meetings or in solo presentations—demands an
effective oral presentation.
Unknown at 04:51
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6 comments:
1.
Vibhay Kumar Patel13 December 2017 at 05:38
Thanks mam, it is very useful for me.
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2.
Unknown12 September 2018 at 20:12
Thanks mam very good definition
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3.
Unknown28 September 2019 at 22:52
Thanks mam . good and I also understand this definition.
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4.
Unknown10 November 2019 at 19:36
thank you for this!
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5.
Unknown15 January 2020 at 08:35
It is really helpful.
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6.
Soham Roy27 April 2020 at 07:53
Thanks man is it's very useful for me
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UNIT 3 1 MOTIVATION
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Concept of Motivation
11.3 Nature of Motivation
11.4 Process of Motivation
11.5 Role of Motivation
11.6 Theories of Motivation
1 1.6.1 McGregor's Participation 'Iheory
11.6.2 h/Iaslow's Need Prtority Theory
11.6.3 H e r ~ b e g ' sMotivation Kygiene Tlieoy
1 1.6.4 Distinction between ITerzberg's and Maslow's Theories
11.6.5 Relationship between Maslow's and Hei~berg'sTheories
11.6.6 Job Enrichment
11.7 Types of Motivation
11.7. L Financial Motivation
1 1.7.2 Non-Financial Motivation
11.8 Let Us Sum Up
11.9 Key Words
11.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
111.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able lo:
explain the concept of motivation and the process of motivation L
describe the significance of motivation in present day organisationf
m analyse some of the theories of motivation
compare Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory with Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory
explain the importance of job enrichment and its limitations in work motivation
a classify different types of motivations-positive and negative, extrinsic and intrinsic
and financial and non-financial
a explain the relative importance of financial and non-financial incentives.
1111.11 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 10 you have learnt that the directing function consists of four sub-functions, one of
which is motivation. In any organisation, all employees do not perform their work with
equal efficiency. Sorne are found to be more efficient than others. Tlie difference in their
performance can be attributed either to differences in their abilities or in their urge or
willingness to perform as best as possible. Given the ability and skill, it is the motive of
employees which determines whether they will be more or less efficient. Employee
motivation i.e. bringing atigut an inner urge or desire in employees to work to the best of
their ability is an important function of management.In this unit we shall deal with the
concepeand process of motivation its importance, theories of motivation and the types of
incentives which may be provided to motivate people.
Staffing and Mrecting
11.2 CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION
Motivation may be defined as the complex of forces inspiring a person at work to intensify
his willingniss to use his maximum capabilities for the achievement of certain objectives.
Motivation is something that motivates a person into action and induces him to continue in
the course of action enthusiastically. It determines the behaviourof a person at work.
According to Dalton E. McFarland
"Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, striving,
or needs direct, control o r explain the behaviour of human being."
The term 'motivation' is derived from the word 'motive'. Motive may be defined as needs,
wants, drives or impulses within the individual. Motives are expressions of a person's needs
and hence they are personal and internal. In this context, the term 'need' should not be
associated with urgency or any pressing desire for something. It simply means something
within an individual that prompts him to action. Motives or needs are 'whys' of behaviour.
They start and maintain activity and determine the general direction of the person. Motives
give direction to human behaviour because they are directed towards certain 'goals' which
may be conscious or sub-conscious.
*
Motives or needs of a person are the starting point in the motivation process. Motives are
directed towards the achievement of certain goals which in turn determine the behaviour of
individuals, This behaviour ultimately leads to goal directed activitiessuch as preparing
food and a goal activity such as eating food. In other words, unsatisfied needs result in
tension within an individual and engage him in search for the way to relieve this tension. He
will develop certain goals for himself and try to achieve them. If he is successful in his
attempt, certain other needs will emerge which will lead to setting a new goal. But if he is
unsuccessful be will engage himself in either constructive or defensive behaviour. This
process keeps on working within an individual.
1111.3 NATURE OF MOTIVATION
Motivation helps in inspiring and encouraging the people to work willingly.
1 Motives are the energisingforces within us: These forces are invisible and it is very
difficult to measure them, because all of us are different and the motives energising us at
a poiiit differ from time to time. All that is possible is to observe and measure the
behaviour we choose and from this behaviour make a kind of backward causation
statement to the possible motive. Observing someone's behaviour may indicate that a
certain need is present in this person, motivating him onward.
2 One motive may result in many different behaviours: The desire for prestige may lead
a person to run for political office, give money away, get additionaleducational training,
steal, join, groups or may change his outward appearance. A person wanting acceptance
will behave differently in a car pool, office secretarial pool, or swimming pool.
3 The same behaviour may result from many different motives: Behaviour may be
caused by a number of different motives. For instance the motives underlying purchaseof
a car may be: to appear younger and attractive; to appear respectable; to gain acceptance
from others; to maintain the acceptance already gained through a similar income level; to
satisfy economic values and to reinforce company created status differentials. Thus it
would be wrong for the manager of an organisation to lump all bebaviour as coming from
the same motive people join unions, get married, attend class, laugh at professor's jokes
for many different reasons (motives). Thus a motive cannot be identified from any
specific behaviour.
4 Behaviour can be used as an estimate of a n individual's motives: It is possible to get
repeated observations of one individual's behaviour and then make an estimate of the
cause of that behaviour. For example, there is truth in the statement that some people
always seem to feel insecure and thus behave continuously in a manner reflecting the
insecuiity of feeling. There zge also people who behave in away that radiates confidence.
They are confident in many different social settings so that one finds a constant and
28
repeated behaviour from which people probably estimate the motive of the person.
Obviously, if a person is at a state of near starvation, most of his behaviour will be related
to the need for food. Although it is dangerous to categorise people, it is also wrong to
believe that individual behaviour, when looked at in a time perspective,cannot be used as
an estimate for motivation.
5 Motives may operate in harmony or in conflict: Behaviour is frequently the result of
the interplay of several motives. These motives may push a person in one direction or in a
number of directions. For example, a girl may want to get high grades in school while
also wanting to help her mother in the kitchen. An athlete may desire an outstanding
performanceand may also be sensitive to being shunned by his fellow teammatcs if he
performs too well and receives too much of credit. Behaviour, therefore, is the result of
many forces differing in direction and intent.
6 Motives come and go: It is very rare that a motive has the same energy potential over a
long period of time. A young man who prefers to travel during vacation may give up the
idea during the football season because the joy of travelling takes second place to the
need to play football. The girl who is overly concerned about her hair and clothes during
adolescence may turn her attention to other things once she grows up. Because humans
are constantly growing, the motive at one point in time will not be as intense as the
motive at another point in time.
7 Motives interact with the environment: The situation at a particular point in time may
trigger or suppress the action of a motive. You probably have experienced situations
where you did not realize the intensity of your hunger needs until your smelling senses
picked up the odour of palatable food. Similarly, many of these sociological needs
become stimulated when you are in a situation filled with the sociological factors. Thus
needs that may be latent can be quickly stimulated by the environmental situation.We
have now identified a number of generalisations that could be useful in understanding the
concept of motivation. The topic of human motivation is very complex and is related lo
other fundamental ideas such as drives and needs so that it is difficult to put our thinking
into a clear system of relationships.
-
1 1 . PROCESS OF MOTIVATION
I
The basic e'iementsof the process of motivation are (i) behaviour (ii) motives (iii) goals and
(iv) some form of feedback as shown in figure 11.1
Figure 11.1
Process of Motivation
m->lBehaviour 1
I-.-.- Tension reduction'9
Bwviour: All behaviour is a series of activities. Behaviour is generally motivated by a '
desire to achieve a goal. At any moment individuals may indulge in multifarious activities
like walking, talking, eating, and so on. They switch over fiom one activity to another
activity swifily. In order to predict and control behaviour managers must understand the
motives of people.
Motives (Needs/drives/wants): Motives prompt people to action. They are the primary
energisersof behaviour. They are the 'ways' of behaviour and mainsprings of action. They
are largely subjective and represent the mental feelings of human beings. They are cognitive'
variables. They cause behaviour in many ways. They arise continuously and determine the
general direction of an individual's behaviour.
Goals: Motives are directed toward goals. Motives generally create a state of
disequilibrium, physiological or psychological imbalance, within the individuals. Attaining a
goal will tend to restore physiological or psychological balance. Goals are the ends which
, Motivation
Staffing and Directing provide satisfaction of human wants. They are outside an individual; they are hoped for
incentives toward which needs are directed. One person may satisfy his need for power by
kicking subordinates and another by becoming the president of a company. Thus, a need can
be satisfied by several alternate goals. The pwticular goals chosen by an individual depends
on four factors; (i) the cultural norms an? values that are instilled as one matures, (ii) one's
inherited and biological capabilities, (iii) personal experience and learning influences and
(iv) mobility in the physical and social environment.
The dilemma posed by a large number of needs can often be resolved by integrating wants
where one activity may satisfy several needs. Researchers have found that rliany overweight
people continue to eat excessively because they have fused the satisfaction of a number
wants @ove, Security, Comfort) into the act of eating. Eating, in a way, releases the tension
built by (he numerous unsatisfied needs.
The procass of motivation discussed above implies that individuals possess a host of needs,
desires and expectations. All of these needs compete for their behaviour and ultimately the
need with the maximum strength at a particular nlcment leads to activity. When a need is
satisfied, it is no longer a motivator of behaviour.
11.5 ROLE OF MOTIVATION
The following factors contribute to the significance of the role of motivation:
1 Managers and organisational researchers cannot avoid a concern with the behaviour
requirements of an organisation. Every organisation needs people (in addition to physical
and financial resources) in order to function.
2 Motivation as a concept is pervasive and a highly complex activity that affects and is
affected by a host of factors in the organisational milieu.
3 Organisational effective~iessbecomes to some degree a questian of management's ability
to motivate its employees, to dkect atleast a reasonable effort toward the goals of the
organisation.
4 As technoIogy increases in complexity, machines tend to become necessary, but
.insufficient vehicles,ofeffective and efficient operations. In other words, it becomes
necessary for an organisation to ensure that it has employees who are both capable of
using and willing to uce the advanced technology to achieve organisational goals.
5 Many organisations are now beginning to pay increasing attention to developing their
employees as future resources (for talent bank) upon which they can draw as they grow
arid develop.
t tl11i~ii't'q~fi~r i9t*(igrt:s#
t hV:~icl~ ,ti' tho li~llowirlgstatements arc:7'nlc illid which are Ftalsc.
i) Filot:ivt8sitricl nccds ilre the ,.whys'of behaviour.
I;, i\ilfiiitfc,;s nlwr~ys~.l[rerntuin lli\~rl~ny prrd clrive i~i~!ividu:rl~; ill ;isingle ajirer:iion.
I;' i '1.11control the betlaviopr of scibardinates,managers milst understand thcir a~ociva~i.
i v ? I'lnuir'onmcnt t ~ a snotliing to do with human motive.
I A8hhsiv~?r; [lo 17ntclianpo in intensity over ti~nc,
2 f.ill in the I)lotiks.
i ) MCtfi~l)~ arc expressions of a person's:,....,,.........,.,.4 and hencc they ;ire peraonal
9 f\tl~l,,,, .,,...,..*,,.,....
il) ,.,,,..,,...,..,,,;.., cnn be used as an ertiniate of an iadividual'o ~natives.
i i i ) ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,., needs may he quickly seimulutcd by thc e~~vironment.
iv) Motives rrre directed towards .,..,,, ,,,,....,.....,
v) Q~~l,ranisationul cffectivcne,usis lo some degn?ea queation of the m:3nagement's
ebility Lo .,.,......,,..,,,,,,,, the ernployeeu.
11.6 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
30 T'heo~.esof motivation generally aim at analysing the process of motivation and indicating
how to motivate people. We shall discuss here three well known theories of motivation.
These are McGeorge participation theory; Mashlows need priority theo~yand Herzberg's
two factor theory.
11.6.1 McGregor's ParticipationTheory '
Douglas McGregor's formulated two sets of assumptions about human beings based on the
participation of workers. The first set of assumptions are contained in Theory X and the
seco~ldset of assumptionsare contained in 'Theory Y'. In the Theory X, McGregor
proceeds with the assumption that the average human being has inherent dislikc for work
and will avoid it if he can. The managers, of such employees think that"most people must
be coerced, contributed, directed, threatened with punishment to get them put forth adequate
efforts towards the achievement of organisational objectives."Theory X presumes that
people by nature:
1 Lack integrity.
2 Are fundamentally lazy and desire to work as little as possible.
3 Avoid responsibility.
4 Are not interested in achievement.
5 Are incapable of directing their own behavicur.
6 Are indifferentto organisational needs.
7 Prefer to be directed by others.
8 Avoid making decision whenever possible.
9 Are not very bright.
McGregor described Theory X as the traditional theory of what workers are like and what
management must dc to manage them. Workers have to be persuaded and pushed into
performance, Workers can be made to work only through autocraticleadership. After
describing Theory X, McGregor questioned if this view of human behaviour is correct. He
propounded theory Y which, he felt better represents the numan behaviour. Under theory Y
it is assumed that people by nature:
1 Have integrity.
2 Work hard towards objectives to which they are committed.
3 Assume responsibility within their commitments.
4 Desire to achieve.
5 Are capable of directing their own behaviour.
6 Want their organisation to succeed.
7 Are not passivc and submassive.
8 Will make decisions within their commitments.
In developing theory Y, McGregor made the following assumptions:
1 Engaging in physical and mental eff~rts-as, '~tral as play or rest. The average human
being does not inherently dislike work.
2 External control and the threat of punishment are not the only ~ L U L c t cl':ecting efforts
towards organisational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in
the service of objectives to which he is coinmitted.
3 Commitn~ento objectives follows the rewards associated with their achievement.The
most significant of such rewards namely satisf-ction ~fego and self-actualisation
needs, can be the direct resilt of efforts tow Ire. ,,rganisational objectives.'
4 The average human being learni, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek
responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, lack of ambition end emphasison security are
generally consequences of cxperience and not inherent human characteristics.
5 The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination,ingenuity,and creativity
in the solution of organisational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the
population.
6 Underthe conditions of modem indhstrial like the intellectual potentialitiesof tho
average human .ing are only partially utilised.
Motivation
Staffing and Directing The assumptions of McGregor's theory Y suggest a new approach to management. It lays
greater emphasis on cooperation between management and workers. The managers
following this theory aim at getting maximum output with minimum degree of control.
Generally, no conflict is visible between the organisational goals and individual goals. Thus,
the efforts of employees which are in their best interest are also in the interest of the
organisation. Theory Y has proved to be useful in such management practices as job
enrichment, decentralisationand participative inanagement. However these techniques are
applicable in organisations where self-motivated, self-controlled mature and responsible
people work. According to McGregor, researches in the behavioural sciences have shown .
that the assumptions of theory Y are more valid than the practices of theory X.
Appraisal: McGregor's co~luibutionshould be analysed in the proper perspective. All that
he postulated and sought to dramatise through his theory X and'theory Y is to outline the
extremes to draw the fencing within which the organisational or enterprise man is seen to
behave. No enterprise man would belong either to theory X or theory Y. He shares the traits
of both, with emphasis shifting from one set of properties to the other with changing moods
and impulses (needs and motives) and with the varying environment.
The chief melit of McGregor's formulation is that it helped to crystallise and set the right
perspective to the findings of Elton Mayo, which had then puzzled inanagement and
productivity experts and set in motion a wave of research into the behaviour of the
enterprise man. It (alongwith Hawthorne Studies) can be said to have been the starting point
and mainspring that evoked wide and lasting interest in the area of motivation, leadership
and techniques of manipulating behaviour of the human element of the enterprise.
.One might get the impression that theory X is bad and theory Y is good. This is not true
because the assumptions under these theories are attitudes or pl.edispositions of managers
towards people. They are not behaviour patterns. Thus, although the 'best' assumptions for a
manager to have may be theory Y, it may not be advisable to behave consistently with these
assumptions about human nature, but he may find it necessary to behave i n a very directive
manner (as if he had theory X assumptions) with some people in the short-run to help to be
mature and self-motivated as per Y.
11.6.2 Maslow's Need Priority Theory
Maslow's theory is based on the needs of people. Maslow was of the view that the process
of motivation begins with behaviour which at least in part, is directed towards the .
satisfaction of needs. He proposed that human needs can be arranged in a particular order
from the lower to the higher as shown in figure 11.2.
Figure 11.2
Maslow's Need Hierarchy

' Safety and Social needs Affection Love Affiliation Acceptance Belongingness Communication	Self fulfilment Growth Advancement Development Desire to take on increased responsibilities Liberation of creative talents	status needs
Recognition Status Self respect Competence Achievement Prestige Independence

Security needs
Physiological
+Primary Needsj C------------Secondary Needs ->
32
Self-actualisation
needs
needs
I -
Food
, Air
fersonal security
Security of the
soufc~of income
Provision for
Esteem and

Water	old age
Shelter	Insurance against risk

1 Physiological needs: The needs that are taken as the starting point of motivation theory
are the physiological needs. These needs relate to the survival and maintenanceof human
life. These needs include such things as food, clothing, shelter, air, water and other
necessitiesof life. These needs must be met at least partly before higher level needs
emerge. They exert tremendous influence on behaviow. They are the most powerful of
motivating stimuli. Therefore, we must satisfy most of them for survival.
2 Safety and security needs:, After satisfying the physiological needs, people want the
assuranceof maintaining a given economic level. These needs include job security
personal security, security of the income, provision for old age, insurance against risks,
etc.
3 Social needs: Man is a social being. He is, therefore, inter sted P in conversation, social
interaction, exchange of feelings, companionship,recogn~tion, belongingness,etc.
Socialising is one of those reasons why many individuals (especially older people) go to
work, and why people generally work better in small groups where they can develop
affiliations that are important to them.
4 Esteem and status needs: These are concerned with awareness of self importance and
recognition from others. Most peoplefeel this need to be rated higher than other needs
and seek recognition and respect on that account. Satisfaction of esteem needs produces
feelings of self-confidence, prestige, power, and control. The fulfilment of esteein'needs
leads to self confidence strength and capability of being useful in the organisation.
Whereas inability to fulfil these needs results in feelings of inferiority, weakness and
helplessness.
5 Self-Actualisation needs: The final step under the need priority model is the need for
self-actualisation also called self fulfilment or the need to fulfil what one's potentialities
for continued self-developmentand for being creative in the broadest sense of that term.
After his other needs are fulfilled, a man has tte desire for personal achievement. He
wants40 do something which is challenging and since this challenge gives him enough
dash and initiative to work, it is beneficial to him in particular and to the society in
general. The sense of achievement gives him .satisfaction.
Maslow felt that the needs have a definite sequence of domination.The second need does
not dominate until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not dominate until
the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied and so on. The other side of the need
hierarchy is that man is never satisfied.If one need is satisfiedanother need arises.
According to Maslow, if one's lower order needs (physiologicaland security needs) are not
satisfied, he can be motivated only by satisfying these needs first and not by satisfying the
higher order needs. Further, once a need or a certain order of n'eeds is satisfied, it ceases to
be a motivating factor.
The physiologicaland security needs are finite, but the needs of higher order are sufficiently
infinite and are likely,to be dominant in persons at higher levels in the organisation. Studies
have also revealed that those needs which are thought to be most important like social needs,
ego needs and self-realisation needs are also the best satisfiers.
Do needs follow a hierarchy
The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places. Surveys in continental
European countries and Japan have shown that the mpdel does not apply very well to their
managers.The degree of satisfaction of needs doesaot vary according to the need priority
model. For example, workers in Spain and Belgium felt that their esteem needs are better
satisfied than their security and social needs. Apparently, culturaldifferences are an
important cause of these differences. Thus, need hierarchy may not follow the sequence
postulated by Maslow. Even if safety need is not satisfied, the ego or sociai need may
emerge.
The proposition that one need is satisfied at one time is also of doubtful validity. The
phenomenon of multiple motivation is of great practical importancein understandingthe
behaviourof man. Man's behaviour at any time is mostly guided by multiplicityof motives.
However, one or two motives in any situation may ty predominant while others may be of
secondary importance. Moreover, at different levels of needs, the motivationwill be
different. Money can act as a motivator only for physiologicaland social needs, not for
Motivation
Stnmngand Directing satisfying higher order needs. Employees are enthusiasticalIymotivated by what they are
seeking, Inore than by what they already have. They may react protectively to try to keep
what they already have, but they move forward with enthusiasm oniy when they are seeking
something else. In other words, man works for bread alone as long as it is not available.
There are always some people in whom, for instance, need for self-esteem seems to be more
prominent than that of love. There are also creative people in whom the drive for
creativeness seems to be more important. In certain people, the level of motivation may be
permanently lower, For instance, a person who has experienced cl~ronicunemployment may
continue to be satisfied for the rest of his life if only he can get enough food. Another cause
of reversal of need hierarchy is that when a need has been satisfied tor a long time it may be
under-evaluated.
11.6.3 Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory
A significant development in motivation theory is based on the distinction between
motivationaland maintenancefactors in job situation. On the basis of his research findings
Herzberg drew a distinction between what he called 'motivators' and 'hygiene' faciors.
Some job conditions operate primarily to dissatisfy employees when the cohditions are
absent, but their presence does not motivate employees in a strong way. Many of these
factors are traditionally perceived by management as motivators, but these are really more
potent as dissatisfiers. The potent dissatisfiers are called maintenance factors in job because
they are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisFaction among the employees. They
are also known as dissatisfiers or 'hygienic factors' because they support employees' mental
health. Anotherset of job condition operates primarily to build strong motivation and high
job satisfaction but their absence rarely proves Strong dissatisfier. These conditions are
'Motivational Factors'. Herzberge's maintenanceand motivational factors have been shown
in the table given below.
Table: IIerberzg's Maintenance and Motivational Factors
Physiological01. Prinlary Needs
Need StructureSocial, Psychological, Ego, or Secondary Needs
I
Maintenance or Hygienic Factors
I
Motivational Factors
1 Conrpany Policy and Administration 1 Achievement
2 Technical Supervision 2 Recognition
3 Inter-personal relations with Supervisor 3 Advancement
4 Inter-personal relations with Peers 4 Work itself
5 'Inter-personal relations with Subordinates 5 Possibilities of growth
6 Salary
7 Job Security
- 8 Personal life
6 Responsibility
9 WorkingConditions
f0 Status
Hygienic factors,includewages, fringe benefits, physical conditions and overall company
p W s and administration. The presence of these factors at a satisfactory level prevents job
diss?tisfaction, but they do not provide motivation to the employees. So they are not
considered as motivational factors. Motivational factors on the other hand are essential for
increasing the productivity of the employees. They are also known as satisfiers and include
such factors as recpaition, feeling of ac~orn~lishkent and achievement, opportunity of
advancement and potentialfor personal growth, responsibility and sense of job and.
individual importance, new experience and challenging work etc.
Henberg further stated that managers have hitherto been very much concerned with
hygieriicfactors. As a result, they have not been able to obtaii the desired behaviour from
employees. In order to incrcase the motivation of employees. It is necessary to pay attention
to the satisfiefsor motivational factors.
According to Herzberg today's lnotivators are tomorrow's hygiene because the latter stop
influencingthe behaviour of persons when they get them. When a person gets one thing,
theq something else will motivate him and the need which has been fulfilled will have only
negativesignificance in detennining his behaviour. It should also be noted that one's
hygiene may be the motivator of another. For instance it is likely that workers in
underdevelopedeconomies will designate some of the maintenance factors as motivators
because their priinary needs have not been fulfilled and they continue to be molivated by
these factors.
Motivation
11.6.4 Distinction between Herzberg's and Maslow's Theories
Both Herzberg and Maslow theories focus on motivational f'dctors. Maslow's motivation
theory is based on the hierarchy of needs. According to him an unsatisfied need becomes a
motivating factor for the individual and governs his behaviour in that direction. But
Her~berghas developed a theory of motivation by differentiatingbetween motivationaland
maintenance (or hygienic) factors. Maintenance factors avoid job dissatisfaction but do not
provide motivalioil to workers. According to hirn lower order needs like physiological,
safety and social needs act as maintenance factors.
Herzberg's theory has a limited applicability in the sense that it is more applicable to
professional personnel, Maslow's theory on the other hand has universal applicability, it is
applicable to all kinds of workers.
Figure 11.2
Relationship between Maslow's and Herzberg's Theories
r-Motivation
I Self-actualisation
7
Esteem I
I
Physiological
Maintenance---------I
-- -
11i6.5 Relationship between Maslow7s and Herzberg's Theories
.-
Though there are differences betweeithe theories-of Herzberg and~ ; s l o wstill they are
related to each other.-~ost of the maintenance factors of Herzberg come under
comparatively lower order needs. Most of these needs remain satisfied and hence cease to be
motivating. Maslow's physiological, security and social needs come under Henberg's '
maintenance factors while self-actualisation cprnes under motivating factors. A portion of
esteem needs like status becomes part of the rnainrenancefactors and the,remaining portion
including advancement and recognition comes under motivational (factors.
I)
11.6.6 Job Enrichment
Herzberg attached greater importance to job enrichment in his two factor theory. Job
enrichment implies enriching the content of job or the deliberate upgrading of responsibility,
scope and challenge in work. Job enrichment is a motivational technique which erpphasises
the need for challenging and interesting work. It suggests that jobs be redesigned so that
intrinsic satisfaction is derived from doing the job. In its best applicatio;, it leads to a
vertically enhanced job by adding functions frm,o t h e organisatioml levels so as to contain
more variety, and challenge and offering autonomy and pride to the employee.
The term job enrichment should be distinguished from the term 'job enlargement'. Job
StnRingand Directing . enlargementattempts to make a job more varied by removing the dullness associated with
perfomlingrepetitive operations. It involves a horizontal loading or expansion i.e. the
addition of more tasks of the same nature. But in jobs enrichment,the attempt is to build
into job a higher sense of challenge and importance of achievement. Job enrichment
involvesvertical loading. Additions in job enrichment require higher levels of skills and
competence.
Some of the principles which make job enrichment effective are:
1 Give the workers the freedom of operation and responsibility.
2 Managers should have better understanding of what workers really want, They wish that
their managers feel concerned about the welfare.
- 3 Workers should be consulted and given the chance to offer their suggestions.
4 Introduce new and more difficult tasks at each step, giving workers at^ opportunity to
learn and speciaiise.
5 The workers should be given frequent feedback on their performance. Recognition and
appreciation of their work induce them to learn more. It also eliminates possibilitiesof
wide variations.This increases the efficiency of workers.
I Advantages of job Enrichment
Followingare the advantages of job enrichment:
i) It makes the work interesting.
ii) It decreases the rates of absenteeismand labour turnover.
iii) It helps motivation through opportunitiesfor growth and advancement.
iv) It makes for task reinforcement and increases the skill of workt?rs.
v) Workers get higher job satisfaction.
vi) The enterprise gains through improvement of output both quantitatively and
qualitatiyelyand higher satisfaction of the workers.
Limitations of job Enrlchment
Following are the limitationsof job enrichment:
i) Technology may not permit the enrichment of all jobs. With specialised machinery, it
may not be possible to make jobs very meaningful.
ii) Job enrichment has proved to be a costly process in certain cases as the expenditure
involved is bigger than the gains in productivity.
iii) Jobs of highly skilled professional employees contain many challenging elements, but
they are not necessarily that much efficient.
iv) It is difficult to say that all workers really want challenging jobs. Many of them even
like to avoid responsibility. They seem to like above all job security and pay. .
v) All thqe who prefer job enrichment may not have the requisite capability to meet the
new challenges.
CheckYou;. :iJ'a.oglrfi.c;r;!;
1 Fill in !ire klam~!.~.
i) Acca7sding el:, 2'Etculry:i, iylarix:rs C:~O be made to work only through ......................
Iszdt:rslrii~,
ii) NcetPs that are t&en as lizc iil i. point of Maslow's motivation the
......................nceds.
iii) H.,owem.order needs are....................... but the higher order needs are......................
iv) ................,.....factors also known as dissatisfiers areof negative impoltana in
motivoilo~!.
v) Job enrichment is a ......................technique.
2 Matclr the following words/phwses in columns E and I1by pairing the alphabtsmd
numbcr against each:

(i) Hygienic factor (ii) Theory X

a) I n c w d responsibility b) Achievment

36
Motivation
-- - -
11.7 TYPES OF MOTIVATION-FINANCIAL &
NON-FINANCIAL
Mothation may be classified on various bases:
1 Positive br negative
2 Extrinsic and intrinsic
3 Financial or non-financial
Positive motivation is the process of attempting to influence the employees' behaviour
through recognition & appreciationof employees' efforts and contribution towards
achievement of organisational goal. Examples of positive motivatorsare-taking interest
in subordinates benefits, appreciation and credit for work done. delegating the authority and
responsibility of subordinates etc. Negative kotivation is based upon fear i.e. demotion,lay
off etc. The fear of punishment affects the behaviour towards changes. Though punishment
has resulted in controlling the misbehaviour and contributed towards positive performance
but it may also lead to poor performance & lower productivity. The second classification
relates to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsicmotivators arise away from the job.
They do not occur on the job. These factors include wages, fringe benefits, medical
reimbursement,etc. Thus, they are generally associated with fiaancialincentives. But,
intrinsic motivators occur on the job and provide satisfaction during the performanceof
work itself. Intrinsic or internal motivators include recognition, status, authority,
participation, etc.
Lastly motivators may be financial or non-financial.Financial motivators are those which
are associated with money. They include wages and salaries, fringe benefits, bonus,
retirement benefit's, etc. Non-financial motivators &e those which are not associated with
monetary rewards. They include intangible incentives like ego satisfaction, selfactualisation and responsibility. Here we shall be confining our discussion only to
financial and non-financial motivation/incentives.
117.1 Rnancial Motivation/Inqntives
Money plays an important role in motivation. Management generally mllke use of financial
incentiveslike wages and salaries, bonus, ietirement benefits, insurance, medical
reimbursement, etc. to motivate the workers. However, such incentivesmay not always
prove' to be motivating.In many cases, management may have to increaseinto the financial
incentives to keep the workers with the organisation. This can be appreciated from the
practice of making wages and salaries competitive between various enterprisesso as to
attract and maintain good work-force.
Money is a real motivating factor when the physiologicaland security needs of the workers
have not been fully satisfied. Money plays a significant role in satisfying these needs,
Therefore, managementcan use financial incentive for motivation. Money also helps in
satisfying the social nwds of employees to some extent because money is often nxognised
as a symbol of status, respect and power. Besides money is an importantmeans of achieving
a 'minimum standard of living' although this 'mininium' has the tendency to go up as
people become more affluent. But this should hot lead one to conclude that money will
always be a motivating factor to all people. To some people, importanceof money may be
redhced after a certain stage, and non-financial rewards may become more important They
aremotivated by money only up to the stage they are strugglingfor satisfying their
physiological and security needs.
Money provides for the satisfaction'of physiologicaland safety needs only which have been
called hygienic factors by Henberg. Hygienic factory include wages and salaries and other
fringe benefits. The presence of these factors at a satisfactory.IevelpreVents job
dissatisfaction.They d6 not provide 'on a job satisfation' to t h ~ employees and,,therefore,
cannot be considered as motivationalfactors. According to Henberg, in order to motivate
the employees,it is necessary to provide for the satisfaction of ego, s d a l and self
Shfiing and Directing actualisation needs. But these needs are present gellerally in case ol'ernployces in the higher
positions, who get higher monetary rewards and are not motivated by increased monetary
benefits. In case of employees at the operative levels, money certainly plays a significant
role in motivating them because their survival and safety depends on it.
From the above discussion, it can be said that money is not the only motivator and it is not
always a motivator: Management shoold therefwe establish a motivational system which is
capable of satisfying different kinds of human needs. 011 the job, satisfaction can be
iiovided by helping the eniployees to develop themselves. Job enlargement, participative
management, recognition, status syrnhols,and making the job challenging are solne of the
other non-financial incentives which also motivate employees.
When the physiological and security nceds iue satisfied with the help of money, it ceases to
be a motivatinglorce; thct is why it is regarded as a maintenance factor. Indeed employees
have other ileeds also. They want status and recognition in society; they want to satisfy their
ego needs and they want to achieve something in their lives. In order to motivate the
employees having these needs. management riay use the following non-financial incentives:
1 Campetition: If there is healthy competition among individual employees, groups of
employees, it leads them to achieve their personal or group goals. Hence competition acts
as a non-financial incentive.
2 Praise or Appr~ciationof work done: Recogllition of satisfactory performance acts as a
non-financial incentive since it satislies one's ego needs. Sometimes appreciation of
work done is more effective than any other incentive. EIowever, this incentive should be
used with great care because praising an incompetent cmploye6creates resentment
among competent empli~yees.
3 Knowledge of the results: Knowledge of the results of work i~dcomplishedleads to
employee satisfaction. A worker feels happy if he is info~medabout performance. He
derives satisfactiotlwheri his superior appreciates the work he has done. In modem
industry, the production workers have no contact with the consumers and so they cannot
get the reactionof the consumers. Howevtr, they can be motivated to a greater extent if
they are told the rating of their performance.
4 Workers' participation in management: Participation in managementprovides strong
motivation to the employees. It gives them psychological satisfaction that their voice is
heard. Participation in management providesfor two-way communication nnd so imbibes
a sense of importance.
5 Suggeslion system: Suggestion system is an incentive which satisfies many needs of the
employees. Many.organisations which use the suggestion system make use of cash
awards for useful suggestions. They sometimes publish the worker's name with his
photograph in the company's magazine. This motivates the elnployees to be in search for
something which may be of greater use ti the organisation.
6 Opportunity for growth: Opportunity for growth is another kind of incenti e. If the
employees we provided opportunitiesfor their advancementand growth and to develop
their personalitythey feel very much satisfied and become more committed to
organisation goals.
Ctaecl~Y s ~ r E:hra:sgrata.cj f2
I Wlrich of the fc)lli)v<i~tg itatcms:aii.:; are 'Trot:asjd tv?rid are F;iB.ie.
i) Negative motivation influences Ireh~.vio~er. tlrrorigh thr: !Llxat of penalty.
il) Intrinsic ~n;,tiv:itbu ia~cludcs!.:uc:h t'iictoru;;nwageu, frixlgc ba~~et'its, alc.
iii:) E~nployeesparricipstlorairi fieanagcalcllt acts :u a r~,n.-i'irrarucial iaccniive.
iv) Qpg:sort~inlry fcsr grow~ki:; ;k iinajii:ia1incentive.
V) Money c;+rrhe ;IIIEQBIV~YC)L. r:c; ~i~lljl~litccj. extent.
2 F11l in tine lilaifi:;,
ij Munej is a read l i i t ~ ~ i vsiin,i; f:i~.;.r;or.jt.ii~ga!: .............,......., i9wj ......................ii:~:?i:
are not fuliy s:tti~fieiP.
ii) Positive motivation is bwcd on..........,
--
11.8 LET US SUM UP
Motivation may be defined as the complex of forces inspiring a person at work to iiltensify
his willingness to use his maximum capabilities for the achievement of certain objectives.
Motives or needs of a person are the starting point of the motivation process. Motives are
energi~ing, invisible forces. One motive may result in many different behaviours. Also the
same behaviour may result from many different motives. Behaviourcan be used as an
estimate of an individusl's motive. Motives can operate in harmony or in conflict. Motives
changeover time. Motives can also interact with the environmeit.
The basic elements oi' the process of motivation are: (i) behaviour, (ii) motives, (iii) goals,
(iv)some form of feedback or reaction. Behaviour is generally motivated by the desire to
achieve a goal. Motives are directed towards goals and prompt people to action.
McGregor formulated two sets of assumptions about human beings, which formed the basis
of Theory X and Theory Y of motivation. He described Weory X as the traditional theory
which required workers to be persuaded and pushed into performance on the assumption
that the average huinan being dislikes work and would,avoid it if he can. He propounded
Theory Y based on the assumption that.people by nature love work and can exercise selfdirection and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed.
Maslow's need priority theory is based on needs of people which arise in sequence and
l~jerarchicalorder from physiological needs through security needs, social needs, estcem
needs and self-fulfilment needs. Herzberg's two-factor theory distinguishes between
maintenance or hygienic factors and motivationd f~ctors, the former having only negative
significance and the latter having positive effect oil inotivation.The absence of maintenance
factors like wages, job security, physical conditions of work and such extrinsicelements
cause dissatisfaction, but their presence does not provibe motivation.On the other hand,
motivational factors such as recognition, achievement, etc. are essential for motivatiilg
employees and these factors provide positive incentives.
Herzberg ernphasised the ilnporta~~ce of job enrichment as one of thz motivational factors. It
refers to enriching the job content or the deliberate upgrading of respcnsibiliiy,scope and
challenge in work. Job enrichment differs fronl job enlargement which involves horizontal
loading, that is, addition of more tasks of the same nature.
Motivation may bc classified on different bases e.g. positive and negative, extrinsic md
intrinsic, financial and non-financial. Positive motivation is the process of attemptingto
influence the employees behaviour through the possibility of reward. Negative motivation is
based on fear & threats i.e. demotion, lay off etc. Extrinsic motivators arise away from the
job and are financial in nature. Intrinsic motivators are concerned with tile state of selfactualisation and occur on the job.
Financial motivation refers to motivation induced by money or money's worth, like wages
and salaries, bonus, medical benefits, etc. Non-financial motivation includes incentives like
competition, praise, knowledge of results, pcuticipationin management, opportunity for
growth etc.
11.9 KEY WORDS
Behaviour:Behaviour refers to the series of activities undertaken by nnindividual or a
group with a view to achieving stated goals.
Esteem and status needs:They relate to self-confidence independence, achievement,
competence, initiative, success, etc.
Extbsic Motivation: Extinsic motivation refers to the incentives which a= external to
the job, such as, salary, fringe benefits, etc.
Statling and Directing Financial Incentives: Financial incentives are those which involve money or benefits in
kind like wage, salary, retirement benefits, insurance,medical reimbursement etc.
Goals:Goals are the ends which provide satisfaction of human needs.
d
Intrinsic Motivation:It refers to incentives internal to the job and provides satisfaction
during the performanceof work itself.
Job Enrichment :It refers to the process whereby a job is enriched in terms of its contents,
responsibility,scope, variety and challenge.
Motivation:Motivation refers to the process by which human needs direct and control the
behaviour of a human being.
Motives:Motives are the primary energisersof behaviour which prompt people to action.
Motivators:Motivators are associated with positive feelings of employees about the job.
Negative Motivation :It refers to the process of influencing employees' behaviour through
fear of losing the job or losing promotion.
Non-Financial Incentives:It includes incentives like status, recognition, challenge in .work
etc.
Physiological Needs:These needs relate to survival and maintenance of h~imanlife, such
as, need for food, clothing,shelter, water, rest, etc.
Positive Motivation : It refers to the processof influencing employees' behaviour through
the possibilityof reward.
Safety and Security Needs: These needs relate to job security, physical security, income
security, provision for old age, etc.
self-~ctualisationor Self-Fulfilment :It refers to realisingone's potentialityfor continued
self-developmentand for being creative in the broadest sense of the word.
Social needs:These relate to need for social incentive, relatedness, companionship,
belongingness, etc.
11.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
A l (i) True (ii)False (iii) True (iv) False (v) False
2 (i) needs internal (ii) behaviour (iii) latent (iv) goals (v) motivate
B 1 (i) autocratic (ii) physiological (iii) finite, infinite (iv) hygiknic/maintenance
(v) motivational
2 (i) -d) (ii)-f) (iii)-d) (iv) -e) (v) -b) (vi) -c)
+
C 1 (i)True (ii) False (iii) True (iv) False (v) False
2 (i) physiological security (ii) rewards (iii) lower-order (iv) non-financial
(v) satisfaction.
1111 TERMINAL OUESTIONS
1 Define motivation. Explain its importance to a modem enterprise.
2 What do you understand by the tern 'motivation'? Point out the difference between
positive and negative motivation.
3 Explain Herzberg's two-factor theory and differentiateit from Maslow's theory of Need
Hierarchy.
40
4 Enumerateihe assumptions of McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. Which one is
applicablein India?
5 malt is meant by hierarchical nature of needs? Is the hierarchy rigid? Discuss with
suitable examples.
6 "Money holds the key to work motivation in\>modembusiness organisations." Discuss.
7 "Non-financial incentives are as strong motivatbrs as the financial ones"Critically
examine this statement in the light of need-priority model and two-factor theory of
motivation.
-
Note:These questions will help you to understand the unit better. Try to write answersfor
them. But, do not submit your answers to University. These are for your practice
only.

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Personal Goal Setting

Planning to Live Your Life Your Way

 

Many people feel as if they're adrift in the world. They work hard, but they don't seem to get anywhere worthwhile.

A key reason that they feel this way is that they haven't spent enough time thinking about what they want from life, and haven't set themselves formal goals. After all, would you set out on a major journey with no real idea of your destination? Probably not!

How to Set a Goal

First consider what you want to achieve, and then commit to it. Set SMART (specific, measureable, attainable, relevant and time-bound) goals that motivate you and write them down to make them feel tangible. Then plan the steps you must take to realize your goal, and cross off each one as you work through them.

Goal setting is a powerful process for thinking about your ideal future, and for motivating yourself to turn your vision of this future into reality.

The process of setting goals helps you choose where you want to go in life. By knowing precisely what you want to achieve, you know where you have to concentrate your efforts. You'll also quickly spot the distractions that can, so easily, lead you astray.

Why Set Goals?

Top-level athletes, successful businesspeople and achievers in all fields all set goals. Setting goals gives you long-term vision and short-term motivation . It focuses your acquisition of knowledge, and helps you to organize your time and your resources so that you can make the most of your life.

By setting sharp, clearly defined goals, you can measure and take pride in the achievement of those goals, and you'll see forward progress in what might previously have seemed a long pointless grind. You will also raise your self-confidence , as you recognize your own ability and competence in achieving the goals that you've set.

Starting to Set Personal Goals

You set your goals on a number of levels:

·         First you create your "big picture" of what you want to do with your life (or over, say, the next 10 years), and identify the large-scale goals that you want to achieve.

·         Then, you break these down into the smaller and smaller targets that you must hit to reach your lifetime goals.

·         Finally, once you have your plan, you start working on it to achieve these goals.

This is why we start the process of setting goals by looking at your lifetime goals. Then, we work down to the things that you can do in, say, the next five years, then next year, next month, next week, and today, to start moving towards them.

Step 1: Setting Lifetime Goals

The first step in setting personal goals is to consider what you want to achieve in your lifetime (or at least, by a significant and distant age in the future). Setting lifetime goals gives you the overall perspective that shapes all other aspects of your decision making.

 

 

To give a broad, balanced coverage of all important areas in your life, try to set goals in some of the following categories (or in other categories of your own, where these are important to you):

·         Career – What level do you want to reach in your career, or what do you want to achieve?

·         Financial – How much do you want to earn, by what stage? How is this related to your career goals?

·         Education – Is there any knowledge you want to acquire in particular? What information and skills will you need to have in order to achieve other goals?

·         Family – Do you want to be a parent? If so, how are you going to be a good parent? How do you want to be seen by a partner or by members of your extended family?

·         Artistic – Do you want to achieve any artistic goals?

·         Attitude – Is any part of your mindset holding you back? Is there any part of the way that you behave that upsets you? (If so, set a goal to improve your behavior or find a solution to the problem.)

·         Physical – Are there any athletic goals that you want to achieve, or do you want good health deep into old age? What steps are you going to take to achieve this?

·         Pleasure – How do you want to enjoy yourself? (You should ensure that some of your life is for you!)

·         Public Service – Do you want to make the world a better place? If so, how?

Spend some time brainstorming  these things, and then select one or more goals in each category that best reflect what you want to do. Then consider trimming again so that you have a small number of really significant goals that you can focus on.

As you do this, make sure that the goals that you have set are ones that you genuinely want to achieve, not ones that your parents, family, or employers might want. (If you have a partner, you probably want to consider what he or she wants – however, make sure that you also remain true to yourself!)

Tip:

You may also want to read our article on Personal Mission Statements . Crafting a personal mission statement can help bring your most important goals into sharp focus.

Step 2: Setting Smaller Goals

Once you have set your lifetime goals, set a five-year plan of smaller goals that you need to complete if you are to reach your lifetime plan.

Then create a one-year plan, six-month plan, and a one-month plan of progressively smaller goals that you should reach to achieve your lifetime goals. Each of these should be based on the previous plan.

Then create a daily To-Do List  of things that you should do today to work towards your lifetime goals.

At an early stage, your smaller goals might be to read books and gather information on the achievement of your higher level goals. This will help you to improve the quality and realism of your goal setting.

Finally, review your plans, and make sure that they fit the way in which you want to live your life.

Tip:

If you feel that you're not paying enough attention to certain areas of your life, you'll find our articles on The Wheel of Life  and the Life/Career Rainbow  useful.

Staying on Course

Once you've decided on your first set of goals, keep the process going by reviewing and updating your To-Do List on a daily basis.

Periodically review the longer term plans, and modify them to reflect your changing priorities and experience. (A good way of doing this is to schedule regular, repeating reviews using a computer-based diary.)

SMART Goals

A useful way of making goals more powerful is to use the SMART  mnemonic. While there are plenty of variants (some of which we've included in parenthesis), SMART usually stands for:

·         S – Specific (or Significant).

·         M – Measurable (or Meaningful).

·         A – Attainable (or Action-Oriented).

·         R – Relevant (or Rewarding).

·         T – Time-bound (or Trackable).

For example, instead of having "to sail around the world" as a goal, it's more powerful to use the SMART goal "To have completed my trip around the world by December 31, 2027." Obviously, this will only be attainable if a lot of preparation has been completed beforehand!

Further Tips for Setting Your Goals

The following broad guidelines will help you to set effective, achievable goals:

·         State each goal as a positive statement – Express your goals positively – "Execute this technique well" is a much better goal than "Don't make this stupid mistake."

·         Be precise – Set precise goals, putting in dates, times and amounts so that you can measure achievement. If you do this, you'll know exactly when you have achieved the goal, and can take complete satisfaction from having achieved it.

·         Set priorities – When you have several goals, give each a priority. This helps you to avoid feeling overwhelmed by having too many goals, and helps to direct your attention to the most important ones.

·         Write goals down – This crystallizes them and gives them more force.

·         Keep operational goals small – Keep the low-level goals that you're working towards small and achievable. If a goal is too large, then it can seem that you are not making progress towards it. Keeping goals small and incremental gives more opportunities for reward.

·         Set performance goals, not outcome goals – You should take care to set goals over which you have as much control as possible. It can be quite dispiriting to fail to achieve a personal goal for reasons beyond your control!

In business, these reasons could be bad business environments or unexpected effects of government policy. In sport, they could include poor judging, bad weather, injury, or just plain bad luck.

If you base your goals on personal performance, then you can keep control over the achievement of your goals, and draw satisfaction from them.

·         Set realistic goals – It's important to set goals that you can achieve. All sorts of people (for example, employers, parents, media, or society) can set unrealistic goals for you. They will often do this in ignorance of your own desires and ambitions.

It's also possible to set goals that are too difficult because you might not appreciate either the obstacles in the way, or understand quite how much skill you need to develop to achieve a particular level of performance.

Achieving Goals

When you've achieved a goal, take the time to enjoy the satisfaction of having done so. Absorb the implications of the goal achievement, and observe the progress that you've made towards other goals.

If the goal was a significant one, reward yourself appropriately. All of this helps you build the self-confidence you deserve.

With the experience of having achieved this goal, review the rest of your goal plans:

·         If you achieved the goal too easily, make your next goal harder.

·         If the goal took a dispiriting length of time to achieve, make the next goal a little easier.

·         If you learned something that would lead you to change other goals, do so.

·         If you noticed a deficit in your skills despite achieving the goal, decide whether to set goals to fix this.

Tip 1:

Our article, Golden Rules of Goal Setting , will show you how to set yourself up for success when it comes to your goals. If you're still having trouble, you might also want to try Backward Goal Setting .

Tip 2:

It's important to remember that failing to meet goals does not matter much, just as long as you learn from the experience.

Feed lessons you have learned back into the process of setting your next goals. Remember too that your goals will change as time goes on. Adjust them regularly to reflect growth in your knowledge and experience, and if goals do not hold any attraction any longer, consider letting them go.

Example Personal Goals

For her New Year's Resolution, Susan has decided to think about what she really wants to do with her life.

Her lifetime goals are as follows:

·         Career – "To be managing editor of the magazine that I work for."

·         Artistic – "To keep working on my illustration skills. Ultimately I want to have my own show in our downtown gallery."

·         Physical – "To run a marathon."

Now that Susan has listed her lifetime goals, she then breaks down each one into smaller, more manageable goals.

Let's take a closer look at how she might break down her lifetime career goal – becoming managing editor of her magazine:

·         Five-year goal: "Become deputy editor."

·         One-year goal: "Volunteer for projects that the current Managing Editor is heading up."

·         Six-month goal: "Go back to school and finish my journalism degree."

·         One-month goal: "Talk to the current managing editor to determine what skills are needed to do the job."

·         One-week goal: "Book the meeting with the Managing Editor."

As you can see from this example, breaking big goals down into smaller, more manageable goals makes it far easier to see how the goal will get accomplished.

Key Points

Goal setting is an important method for:

·         Deciding what you want to achieve in your life.

·         Separating what's important from what's irrelevant, or a distraction.

·         Motivating yourself.

·         Building your self-confidence, based on successful achievement of goals.

Set your lifetime goals first. Then, set a five-year plan of smaller goals that you need to complete if you are to reach your lifetime plan. Keep the process going by regularly reviewing and updating your goals. And remember to take time to enjoy the satisfaction of achieving your goals when you do so.

If you don't already set goals, do so, starting now. As you make this technique part of your life, you'll find your career accelerating, and you'll wonder how you did without it!